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-% gpl-lgplg.tex                                                  -*- LaTeX -*-
-%      Tutorial Text for the Detailed Study and Analysis of GPL and LGPL course
-%
-% Copyright (C) 2003, 2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
-% License: CC-By-SA-4.0
-
-% The copyright holders hereby grant the freedom to copy, modify, convey,
-% Adapt, and/or redistribute this work under the terms of the Creative
-% Commons Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International License.
-
-% This text is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but
-% WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
-% MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
-
-% You should have received a copy of the license with this document in
-% a file called 'CC-By-SA-4.0.txt'.  If not, please visit
-% https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode to receive
-% the license text.
-
-\documentclass[12pt]{report}
-% FILTER_PS:  \input{generate-ps-file}
-% FILTER_PDF: \input{generate-pdf-file}
-% FILTER_HTML: \input{generate-html-file}
-\input{one-inch-margins}
-\usepackage{enumerate}
-
-%\setlength\parskip{0.7em}
-%\setlength\parindent{0pt}
-
-\newcommand{\defn}[1]{\emph{#1}}
-
-%\pagestyle{empty}
-
-\begin{document}
-
-\begin{titlepage}
-
-
-\begin{center}
-
-\vspace{.5in}
-
-{\Large
-{\sc Detailed Study and Analysis of GPL and LGPL  } \\
-
-\vspace{.7in}
-
-Sponsored by the Free Software Foundation \\
-
-
-\vspace{.3in}
-
-Columbia Law School, New York, NY, USA \\
-\vspace{.1in}
-Tuesday 20 January 2004
-}
-
-\vspace{.7in}
-
-{\large
-Bradley M. Kuhn
-
-Executive Director
-
-Free Software Foundation
-}
-
-\vspace{.3in}
-
-
-{\large
-Daniel Ravicher
-
-Senior Counsel 
-
-Free Software Foundation
-}
-
-\end{center}
-
-\vfill
-
-{\parindent 0in
-Copyright \copyright{} 2003, 2004 \hspace{.2in} Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
-\vspace{.3in}
-
-The copyright holders hereby grant the freedom to copy, modify, convey,
-Adapt, and/or redistribute this work under the terms of the Creative Commons
-Attribution Share Alike 4.0 International License.  A copy of that license is
-available at \verb=https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode=.
-}
-
-\end{titlepage}
-
-\pagestyle{plain}
-\pagenumbering{roman}
-
-\begin{abstract}
-
-
-This one-day course gives a section-by-section explanation of the most
-popular Free Software copyright license, the GNU General Public License
-(GNU GPL), and teaches lawyers, software developers, managers and business
-people how to use the GPL (and GPL'd software) successfully in a new Free
-Software business and in existing, successful enterprises.
-
-Attendees should have a general familiarity with software development
-processes.  A vague understanding of how copyright law applies to software
-is also helpful.  The tutorial is of most interest to lawyers, software
-developers and managers who run software businesses that modify and/or
-redistribute software under terms of the GNU GPL (or who wish to do so in
-the future), and those who wish to make use of existing GPL'd software in
-their enterprise.
-
-Upon completion of the tutorial, successful attendees can expect to have
-learned the following:
-
-\begin{itemize}
-
-  \item the freedom-defending purpose of each term of the GNU GPL.
-
-  \item the redistribution options under the GPL.
-
-  \item the obligations when modifying GPL'd software.
-
-  \item how to build a plan for proper and successful compliance with the GPL.
-
-  \item the business advantages that the GPL provides.
-
-  \item the most common business models used in conjunction with the GPL.
-
-  \item how existing GPL'd software can be used in existing enterprises.
-
-  \item the basics of the LGPL and how it differs from GPL.
-
-  \item how best to understand the complexities regarding derivative
-        works of software.
-\end{itemize}
-
-\bigskip
-
-These course materials are merely a summary of the highlights of the
-course presented.  Readers of this material should assume that they have
-missed the bulk of the material, as the detailed discussion of about these
-issues is the true education about GPL and LPGL\@.  Merely reading this
-material is akin to matriculating into a college course and read only the
-textbook instead of going to class.
-
-\end{abstract}
-
-\tableofcontents
-
-\pagebreak
-
-\pagenumbering{arabic}
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\chapter{What Is Free Software?}
-
-Consideration of the GNU General Public License (herein, abbreviated as
-\defn{GNU GPL} or just \defn{GPL}) must begin by first considering the broader
-world of Free Software.  The GPL was not created from a void, rather,
-it was created to embody and defend a set of principles that were set
-forth at the founding of the GNU project and the Free Software Foundation
-(FSF)---the organization that upholds, defends and promotes the philosophy
-of software freedom.  A prerequisite for understanding the GPL and its
-terms and conditions is a basic understanding of the principles behind it.
-The GPL is unlike almost all other software licenses in that it is
-designed to defend and uphold these principles.
-
-\section{The Free Software Definition}
-\label{Free Software Definition}
-
-The Free Software Definition is set forth in full on FSF's website at
-\verb0http://www.fsf.org/0 \verb0philosophy/free-sw.html0.  This section
-presents an abbreviated version that will focus on the parts that are most
-pertinent to the terms of the GPL\@.
-
-A particular program is Free Software if it grants a particular user of
-that program, the following freedoms:
-
-\begin{itemize}
-
-\item the freedom to run the program for any purpose.
-
-\item the freedom to change and modify the program.
-
-\item the freedom to copy and share the program.
-
-\item the freedom to share improved versions of the program.
-
-\end{itemize}
-
-The focus on ``a particular user'' is very pertinent here.  It is not
-uncommon for the same version of a specific program to grant these
-freedoms to some subset of its user base, while others have none or only
-some of these freedoms.  Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing} talks in
-detail about how this can happen even if a program is released under the
-GPL\@.
-
-Some people refer to software that gives these freedoms as ``Open
-Source''.  Besides having a different political focus than those who call
-it Free Software\footnote{The political differences between the Free
-Software Movement and the Open Source Movement are documented on FSF's
-website at
-{\tt http://www.fsf.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html}},
-those who call the software ``Open Source'' are focused on a side issue.
-User access to the source code of a program is a prerequisite to make use
-of the freedom to modify.  However, the important issue is what freedoms
-are granted in the license of that source code.  Microsoft's ``Shared
-Source'' program, for example, gives various types of access to source
-code, but almost none of the freedoms described in this section.
-
-One key issue that is central to these freedoms is that there are no
-restrictions on how these freedoms can be exercised.  Specifically, users
-and programmers can exercise these freedoms non-commercially or
-commercially.  Licenses that grant these freedoms for non-commercial
-activities but prohibit them for commercial activities are considered
-non-Free.
-
-In general, software for which most or all of these freedoms are
-restricted in any way is called ``non-Free Software''.  Typically, the
-term ``proprietary software'' is used more or less interchangeably with
-``non-Free Software''.  Personally, I tend to use the term ``non-Free
-Software'' to refer to non-commercial software that restricts freedom
-(such as ``shareware'') and ``proprietary software'' to refer to
-commercial software that restricts freedom (such as nearly all of
-Microsoft's and Oracle's offerings).
-
-The remainder of this section considers each of the four freedoms in
-detail.
-
-\subsection{The Freedom to Run}
-
-For a program to be Free Software, the freedom to run the program must be
-completely unrestricted.  This means that any use for that software that
-the user can come up with must be permitted.  Perhaps, for example, the
-user has discovered an innovative new use for a particular program, one
-that the programmer never could have predicted.  Such a use must not be
-restricted.
-
-It was once rare that this freedom was restricted by even proprietary
-software; today it is not so rare.  Most End User Licensing Agreements
-(EULAs) that cover most proprietary software restrict some types of use.
-For example, some versions of Microsoft's FrontPage software prohibit use
-of the software to create websites that generate negative publicity for
-Microsoft.  Free Software has no such restrictions; everyone is free to
-use Free Software for any purpose whatsoever.
-
-\subsection{The Freedom to Change and Modify}
-
-Free Software programs allow users to change, modify and adapt the
-software to suit their needs.  Access to the source code and related build
-scripts are an essential part of this freedom.  Without the source code
-and the ability to build the binary applications from that source, the
-freedom cannot be properly exercised.
-
-Programmers can take direct benefit from this freedom, and often do.
-However, this freedom is also important to users who are not programmers.
-Users must have the right to exercise this freedom indirectly in both
-commercial and non-commercial settings.  For example, users often seek
-non-commercial help with the software on email lists and in users groups.
-When they find such help, they must have the freedom to recruit
-programmers who might altruistically assist them to modify their software.
-
-The commercial exercise of this freedom is also essential for users.  Each
-user, or group of users, must have the right to hire anyone they wish in a
-competitive free market to modify and change the software.  This means
-that companies have a right to hire anyone they wish to modify their Free
-Software.  Additionally, such companies may contract with other companies
-to commission software modification.
-
-\subsection{The Freedom to Copy and Share}
-
-Users may share Free Software in a variety of ways.  Free Software
-advocates work to eliminate a fundamental ethical dilemma of the software
-age: choosing between obeying a software license, and friendship (by
-giving away a copy of a program your friend who likes the software you are
-using).  Free Software licenses, therefore, must permit this sort of
-altruistic sharing of software among friends.
-
-The commercial environment must also have the benefits of this freedom.
-Commercial sharing typically takes the form of selling copies of Free
-Software.  Free Software can be sold at any price to anyone.  Those who
-redistribute Free Software commercially have the freedom to selectively
-distribute (you can pick your customers) and to set prices at any level
-the redistributor sees fit.
-
-It is true that many people get copies of Free Software very cheaply (and
-sometimes without charge). The competitive free market of Free Software
-tends to keep prices low and reasonable.  However, if someone is willing
-to pay a billion dollars for one copy of the GNU Compiler Collection, such
-a sale is completely permitted.
-
-Another common instance of commercial sharing is service-oriented
-distribution.  For example, a distribution vendor may provide immediate
-security and upgrade distribution via a special network service.  Such
-distribution is completely permitted for Free Software.
-
-(Section~\ref{Business Models} of this tutorial talks in detail about
-various Free Software business models that take advantage of the freedom
-to share commercially.)
-
-\subsection{The Freedom to Share Improvements}
-
-The freedom to modify and improve is somewhat empty without the freedom to
-share those improvements.  The Free Software community is built on the
-pillar of altruistic sharing of improved Free Software.  Inevitably, a
-Free Software project sprouts a mailing list where improvements are shared
-freely among members of the development community.  Such non-commercial
-sharing must be permitted for Free Software to thrive.
-
-Commercial sharing of modified Free Software is equally important.  For a
-competitive free market for support to exist, all developers --- from
-single-person contractors to large software companies --- must have the
-freedom to market their services as improvers of Free Software.  All forms
-of such service marketing must be equally available to all.
-
-For example, selling support services for Free Software is fully
-permitted.  Companies and individuals can offer themselves as ``the place
-to call'' when software fails or does not function properly.  For such a
-service to be meaningful, the entity offering that service must have the
-right to modify and improve the software for the customer to correct any
-problems that are beyond mere user error.
-
-Entities must also be permitted to make available modified versions of
-Free Software.  Most Free Software programs have a ``standard version''
-that is made available from the primary developers of the software.
-However, all who have the software have the ``freedom to fork'' --- that
-is, make available non-trivial modified versions of the software on a
-permanent or semi-permanent basis.  Such freedom is central to vibrant
-developer and user interaction.
-
-Companies and individuals have the right to make true value-added versions
-of Free Software.  They may use freedom to share improvements to
-distribute distinct versions of Free Software with different functionality
-and features.  Furthermore, this freedom can be exercised to serve a
-disenfranchised subset of the user community.  If the developers of the
-standard version refuse to serve the needs of some of the software's
-users, other entities have the right to create long- or short-lived fork
-that serves that sub-community.
-
-\section{How Does Software Become Free?}
-
-The last section set forth the freedoms and rights are respected by Free
-Software.  It presupposed, however, that such software exists.  This
-section discusses how Free Software comes into existence.  But first, it
-addresses how software can be non-free in the first place.
-
-Software can be made proprietary only because it is governed by copyright
-law\footnote{This statement is a bit of an oversimplification.  Patents
-  and trade secrets can cover software and make it effectively non-free,
-  one can contract away their rights and freedoms regarding software, or
-  source code can be practically obscured in binary-only distribution
-  without reliance on any legal system.  However, the primary control
-  mechanism for software is copyright.}.  Copyright law, with respect to
-software, governs copying, modifying, and redistributing that
-software\footnote{Copyright law in general also governs ``public
-  performance'' of copyrighted works.  There is no generally agreed
-  definition for public performance of software and version 2 of the GPL
-  does not govern public performance.}.  By law, the copyright holder (aka
-the author) of the work controls how others may copy, modify and/or
-distribute the work.  For proprietary software, these controls are used to
-prohibit these activities.  In addition, proprietary software distributors
-further impede modification in a practical sense by distributing only
-binary code and keeping the source code of the software secret.
-
-Copyright law is a construction.  In the USA, the Constitution permits,
-but does not require, the creation of copyright law as federal
-legislation.  Software, since it is an idea fixed in a tangible medium, is
-thus covered by the statues, and is copyrighted by default.
-
-However, this legal construction is not necessarily natural.  Software, in
-its natural state without copyright, is Free Software.  In an imaginary
-world, which has no copyright, the rules would be different.  In this
-world, when you received a copy of a program's source code, there would be
-no default legal system to restrict you from sharing it with others,
-making modifications, or redistributing those modified
-versions\footnote{There could still exist legal systems, like our modern
-  patent system, which could restrict the software in other ways.}.
-
-Software in the real world is copyrighted by default, and that default
-legal system does exist.  However, it is possible to move software out of
-the domain of the copyright system.  A copyright holder is always
-permitted to \defn{disclaim} their copyright.  If copyright is disclaimed,
-the software is not governed by copyright law.  Software not governed by
-copyright is in the ``public domain''.
-
-\subsection{Public Domain Software}
-
-An author can create public domain software by disclaiming all copyright
-interest on the work.  In the USA and other countries that have signed the
-Berne convention on copyright, software is copyrighted automatically by
-the author when she ``fixes the software into a tangible medium''.  In
-the software world, this usually means typing the source code of the
-software into a file.
-
-However, an author can disclaim that default control given to her by the
-copyright laws.  Once this is done, the software is in the public domain
---- it is no longer covered by copyright.  Since it is copyright law that
-allows for various controls on software (i.e., prohibition of copying,
-modification, and redistribution), removing the software from the
-copyright system and placing it into the public domain does yield Free
-Software.
-
-Carefully note that software in the public domain is \emph{not} licensed
-in any way.  It is nonsensical to say software is ``licensed for the
-public domain'', or any phrase that implies the copyright holder gave
-expressed permission to take actions governed by copyright law.
-
-By contrast, what the copyright holder has done is renounce her copyright
-controls on the work.  The law gave her controls over the work, and she
-has chosen to waive those controls.  Software in the public domain is
-absent copyright and absent a license.  The software freedoms discussed in
-Section~\ref{Free Software Definition} are all granted because there is no
-legal system in play to take them away.
-
-\subsection{Why Copyright Free Software?}
-
-If simply disclaiming copyright on software yields Free Software, then it
-stands to reason that putting software into the public domain is the
-easiest and most straightforward way to produce Free Software.  Indeed,
-some major Free Software projects have chosen this method for making their
-software Free.  However, most of the Free Software in existence \emph{is}
-copyrighted.  In most cases (particularly in that of FSF and the GNU
-Project), this was done due to very careful planning.
-
-Software released into the public domain does grant freedom to those users
-who receive the standard versions on which the original author disclaimed
-copyright.  However, since the work is not copyrighted, any non-trivial
-modification made to the work is fully copyrightable.
-
-Free Software released into the public domain initially is Free, and
-perhaps some who modify the software choose to place their work into the
-public domain as well.  However, over time, some entities will choose to
-proprietarize their modified versions.  The public domain body of software
-feeds the proprietary software.  The public commons disappears, because
-fewer and fewer entities have an incentive to contribute back to the
-commons.  They know that any of their competitors can proprietarize their
-enhancements.  Over time, almost no interesting work is left in the public
-domain, because nearly all new work is done by proprietarization.
-
-A legal mechanism is needed to redress this problem.  FSF was in fact
-originally created primarily as a legal entity to defend software freedom,
-and that work of of defending software freedom is a substantial part of
-its work today.  Specifically because of this ``embrace, proprietarize and
-extend'' cycle, FSF made a conscious choice to copyright its Free Software,
-and then license it under ``copyleft'' terms, and many, including the
-developers of the kernel named Linux, have chosen to follow this paradigm.
-
-Copyleft is a legal strategy to defend, uphold and propagate software
-freedom.  The basic technique of copyleft is as follows: copyright the
-software, license it under terms that give all the software freedoms, but
-use the copyright law controls to ensure that all who receive a copy of
-the software have equal rights and freedom.  In essence, copyleft grants
-freedom, but forbids others to forbid that freedom from anyone else along
-the distribution and modification chains.
-
-Copyleft is a general concept.  Much like ideas for what a computer might
-do must be \emph{implemented} by a program that actually does the job, so
-too must copyleft be implemented in some concrete legal structure.
-``Share and share alike'' is a phrase that is often enough to explain the
-concept behind copyleft, but to actually make it work in the real world, a
-true implementation in legal text must exist.  The GPL is the primary
-implementation of copyleft in copyright licensing language.
-
-\section{An Ecosystem of Equality}
-
-The GPL uses copyright law to defend freedom and equally ensure users'
-rights.  This ultimately creates an ecosystem of equality for both
-business and non-commercial users.
-
-\subsection{The Non-Commercial Ecosystem}
-
-A GPL'd code base becomes a center of a vibrant development and user
-community.  Traditionally, volunteers, operating non-commercially out of
-keen interest or ``scratch an itch'' motivations, produce initial versions
-of a GPL'd system.  Because of the efficient distribution channels of the
-Internet, any useful GPL'd system is adopted quickly by non-commercial
-users.
-
-Fundamentally, the early release and quick distribution of the software
-gives birth to a thriving non-commercial community.  Users and developers
-begin sharing bug reports and bug fixes across a shared intellectual
-commons.  Users can trust the developers, because they know that if the
-developers fail to address their needs or abandon the project, the GPL
-ensures that someone else has the right to pick up development.
-Developers know that the users cannot redistribute their software without
-passing along the rights granted by GPL, so they are assured that every
-one of their users is treated equally.
-
-Because of the symmetry and fairness inherent in GPL'd distribution,
-nearly every GPL'd package in existence has a vibrant non-commercial user
-and developer base.
-
-\subsection{The Commercial Ecosystem}
-
-By the same token, nearly all established GPL'd software systems have a
-vibrant commercial community.  Nearly every GPL'd system that has gained
-wide adoption from non-commercial users and developers eventually begins
-to fuel a commercial system around that software.
-
-For example, consider the Samba file server system that allows Unix-like
-systems (including GNU/Linux) to serve files to Microsoft Windows systems.
-Two graduate students originally developed Samba in their spare time and
-it was deployed non-commercially in academic environments.  However, very
-soon for-profit companies discovered that the software could work for them
-as well, and their system administrators began to use it in place of
-Microsoft Windows NT file-servers.  This served to lower the cost of
-running such servers by orders of magnitude.  There was suddenly room in
-Windows file-server budgets to hire contractors to improve Samba.  Some of
-the first people hired to do such work were those same two graduate
-students who originally developed the software.
-
-The non-commercial users, however, were not concerned when these two
-fellows began collecting paychecks off of their GPL'd work.  They knew
-that because of the nature of the GPL that improvements that were
-distributed in the commercial environment could easily be folded back into
-the standard version.  Companies are not permitted to proprietarize
-Samba, so the non-commercial users, and even other commercial users are
-safe in the knowledge that the software freedom ensured by GPL will remain
-protected.
-
-Commercial developers also work in concert with non-commercial developers.
-Those two now-long-since graduated students continue to contribute to
-Samba altruistically, but also get work doing it.  Priorities change when a
-client is in the mix, but all the code is contributed back to the
-standard version.  Meanwhile, many other individuals have gotten involved
-non-commercially as developers, because they want to ``cut their teeth on
-Free Software'' or because the problems interest them.  When they get good
-at it, perhaps they will move on to another project or perhaps they will
-become commercial developers of the software themselves.
-
-No party is a threat to another in the GPL software scenario because
-everyone is on equal ground.  The GPL protects rights of the commercial
-and non-commercial contributors and users equally.  The GPL creates trust,
-because it is a level playing field for all.
-
-\subsection{Law Analogy}
-
-In his introduction to Stallman's \emph{Free Software, Free Society},
-Lawrence Lessig draws an interesting analogy between the law and Free
-Software.  He argues that the laws of a Free society must be protected
-much like the GPL protects software.  So that I might do true justice to
-Lessig's argument, I quote it verbatim:
-
-\begin{quotation}
-
-A ``free society'' is regulated by law. But there are limits that any free
-society places on this regulation through law: No society that kept its
-laws secret could ever be called free. No government that hid its
-regulations from the regulated could ever stand in our tradition. Law
-controls.  But it does so justly only when visibly. And law is visible
-only when its terms are knowable and controllable by those it regulates,
-or by the agents of those it regulates (lawyers, legislatures).
-
-This condition on law extends beyond the work of a legislature.  Think
-about the practice of law in American courts.  Lawyers are hired by their
-clients to advance their clients' interests. Sometimes that interest is
-advanced through litigation. In the course of this litigation, lawyers
-write briefs.  These briefs in turn affect opinions written by judges.
-These opinions decide who wins a particular case, or whether a certain law
-can stand consistently with a constitution.
-
-All the material in this process is free in the sense that Stallman means.
-Legal briefs are open and free for others to use.  The arguments are
-transparent (which is different from saying they are good) and the
-reasoning can be taken without the permission of the original lawyers.
-The opinions they produce can be quoted in later briefs.  They can be
-copied and integrated into another brief or opinion.  The ``source code''
-for American law is by design, and by principle, open and free for anyone
-to take. And take lawyers do---for it is a measure of a great brief that
-it achieves its creativity through the reuse of what happened before.  The
-source is free; creativity and an economy is built upon it.
-
-This economy of free code (and here I mean free legal code) doesn't starve
-lawyers.  Law firms have enough incentive to produce great briefs even
-though the stuff they build can be taken and copied by anyone else.  The
-lawyer is a craftsman; his or her product is public.  Yet the crafting is
-not charity.  Lawyers get paid; the public doesn't demand such work
-without price.  Instead this economy flourishes, with later work added to
-the earlier.
-
-We could imagine a legal practice that was different---briefs and
-arguments that were kept secret; rulings that announced a result but not
-the reasoning.  Laws that were kept by the police but published to no one
-else.  Regulation that operated without explaining its rule.
-
-We could imagine this society, but we could not imagine calling it
-``free.''  Whether or not the incentives in such a society would be better
-or more efficiently allocated, such a society could not be known as free.
-The ideals of freedom, of life within a free society, demand more than
-efficient application.  Instead, openness and transparency are the
-constraints within which a legal system gets built, not options to be
-added if convenient to the leaders.  Life governed by software code should
-be no less.
-
-Code writing is not litigation.  It is better, richer, more
-productive. But the law is an obvious instance of how creativity and
-incentives do not depend upon perfect control over the products created.
-Like jazz, or novels, or architecture, the law gets built upon the work
-that went before. This adding and changing is what creativity always is.
-And a free society is one that assures that its most important resources
-remain free in just this sense.\footnote{This quotation is Copyright
-  \copyright{} 2002, Lawrence Lessig.  It is licensed under the terms of
-  \href{http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/1.0/}{the ``Attribution
-    License'', version 1.0} or any later version as published by Creative
-  Commons.}
-\end{quotation}
-
-In essence, lawyers are paid to service the shared commons of legal
-infrastructure.  Few citizens defend themselves in court or write their
-own briefs (even though they are legally permitted to do so) because
-everyone would prefer to have an expert do that job.
-
-The Free Software economy is a market that is ripe for experts.  It
-functions similarly to other well established professional fields like the
-law.  The GPL, in turn, serves as the legal scaffolding that permits the
-creation of this vibrant commercial and non-commercial Free Software
-economy.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\chapter{Running Software And Verbatim Copying}
-\label{run-and-verbatim}
-
-
-This chapter begins the deep discussion of the details of the terms of
-GPL\@.  In this chapter, we consider the first two sections: GPL \S\S
-0--2.  These are the straightforward sections of the GPL that define the
-simplest rights that the user receives.
-
-\section{GPL \S 0: Freedom to Run}
-\label{GPLs0}
-
-\S 0, the opening section of GPL, sets forth that the work is governed by
-copyright law.  It specifically points out that it is the ``copyright
-holder'' who decides if a work is licensed under its terms, and explains
-how the copyright holder might indicate this fact.
-
-A bit more subtly, \S 0 makes an inference that copyright law is the only
-system under which it is governed.  Specifically, it states:
-\begin{quote}
-Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not
-covered by this License; they are outside its scope.
-\end{quote}
-In essence, the license governs \emph{only} those activities and all other
-activities are unrestricted, provided that no other agreements trump GPL
-(which they cannot; see Sections~\ref{GPLs6} and~\ref{GPLs7}).  This is
-very important, because the Free Software community heavily supports
-users' rights to ``fair use'' and ``unregulated use'' of copyrighted
-material.  GPL asserts through this clause that it supports users' rights
-to fair and unregulated uses.
-
-Fair use of copyrighted material is an established legal doctrine that
-permits certain activities.  Discussion of the various types of fair use
-activity are beyond the scope of this tutorial.  However, one important
-example of fair use is the right to quote a very few lines (less than
-seven or so), and reuse them as you with without licensing restrictions.
-
-Fair use is a doctrine established by the courts or by statute.  By
-contrast, unregulated uses are those that are not covered by the statue
-nor determined by a court to be covered, but are common and enjoyed by
-many users.  An example of unregulated use is reading a printout of the
-program's source code like an instruction book for the purpose of learning
-how to be a better programmer.
-
-\medskip
-
-Thus, the GPL protects users fair and unregulated use rights precisely by
-not attempting to cover them.  Furthermore, the GPL ensures the freedom
-to run specifically by stating the following:
-\begin{quote}
-The act of running the Program is not restricted
-\end{quote}
-Thus, users are explicitly given the freedom to run by \S 0.
-
-\medskip
-
-The bulk of \S 0 not yet discussed gives definitions for other terms used
-throughout.  The only one worth discussing in detail is ``work based on
-the Program''.  The reason this definition is particularly interesting is
-not for the definition itself, which is rather straightforward, but the
-because it clears up a common misconception about the GPL\@.
-
-The GPL is often mistakenly criticized because it fails to give a
-definition of ``derivative work''.  In fact, it would be incorrect and
-problematic if the GPL attempted to define this.  A copyright license, in
-fact, has no control over what may or may not be a derivative work.  This
-matter is left up to copyright law, not the licenses that utilize it.
-
-It is certainly true that copyright law as a whole does not propose clear
-and straightforward guidelines for what is and is not a derivative
-software work under copyright law.  However, no copyright license --- not
-even the GNU GPL --- can be blamed for this.  Legislators and court
-opinions must give us guidance to decide the border cases.
-
-\section{GPL \S 1: Verbatim Copying}
-\label{GPLs1}
-
-GPL \S 1 covers the matter of redistributing the source code of a program
-exactly as it was received.  This section is quite straightforward.
-However, there are a few details worth noting here.
-
-The phrase ``in any medium'' is important.  This, for example, gives the
-freedom to publish a book that is the printed copy of the program's source
-code.  It also allows for changes in the medium of distribution.  Some
-vendors may ship Free Software on a CD, but others may place it right on
-the hard drive of a pre-installed computer.  Any such redistribution media
-is allowed.
-
-Preservation of copyright notice and license notifications are mentioned
-specifically in \S 1.  These are in some ways the most important part of
-the redistribution, which is why they are mentioned by name.  The GPL
-always strives to make it abundantly clear to anyone who receives the
-software what its license is.  The goal is to make sure users know their
-rights and freedoms under GPL and to leave no reason that someone would be
-surprised that the software she got was licensed under GPL\@.  Thus
-throughout the GPL, there are specific reference to the importance of
-notifying others down the distribution chain that they have rights under
-GPL.
-
-Also mentioned by name is the warranty disclaimer.  Most people today do
-not believe that software comes with any warranty.  Notwithstanding the
-proposed state-level UCITA bills (which have never obtained widespread
-adoption), there are little or no implied warranties with software.
-However, just to be on the safe side, GPL clearly disclaims them, and the
-GPL requires redistributors to keep the disclaimer very visible.  (See
-Sections~\ref{GPLs11} and~\ref{GPLs12} of this tutorial for more on GPL's
-warranty disclaimers.)
-
-Note finally that \S 1 begins to set forth the important defense of
-commercial freedom.  \S 1 clearly states that in the case of verbatim
-copies, one may make money.  Redistributors are fully permitted to charge
-for the redistribution of copies of Free Software.  In addition, they may
-provide the warranty protection that the GPL disclaims as an additional
-service for a fee.  (See Section~\ref{Business Models} for more discussion
-on making a profit from Free Software redistribution.)
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\chapter{Derivative Works: Statute and Case Law}
-
-We digress for this chapter from our discussion of GPL's exact text to
-consider the matter of derivative works --- a concept that we must
-understand fully before considering \SS 2--3 of GPL\@.  GPL, and Free
-Software licensing in general, relies critically on the concept of
-``derivative work'' since software that is ``independent,'' (i.e., not
-``derivative'') of free software need not abide by the terms of the
-applicable Free Software license.  As much is required by \S 106 of the
-Copyright Act, 17 U.S.C. \S 106 (2002), and admitted by Free Software
-licenses, such as the GPL, which (as we have seen) states in \S 0 that ``a
-'work based on the Program' means either the Program or any derivative
-work under copyright law.'' It is being a derivative work of Free Software
-that triggers the necessity to comply with the terms of the Free Software
-license under which the original work is distributed. Therefore, one is
-left to ask, just what is a ``derivative work?'' The answer to that
-question differs depending on which court is being asked.
-
-The analysis in this chapter sets forth the differing definitions of
-derivative work by Circuit. The broadest and most established definition
-of derivative work for software is the abstraction, filtration, and
-comparison test (``the AFC test'') as created and developed by the Second
-Circuit. Some Circuits, including the Ninth Circuit and the First Circuit,
-have either adopted narrower versions of the AFC test or have expressly
-rejected the AFC test in favor of a narrower standard. Further, several
-other Circuits have yet to adopt any definition of derivative work for
-software.
-
-As an introductory matter, it is important to note that literal copying of
-a significant portion of source code is not always sufficient to establish
-that a second work is a derivative work of an original
-program. Conversely, a second work can be a derivative work of an original
-program even though absolutely no copying of the literal source code of
-the original program has been made. This is the case because copyright
-protection does not always extend to all portions of a program’s code,
-while, at the same time, it can extend beyond the literal code of a
-program to its non-literal aspects, such as its architecture, structure,
-sequence, organization, operational modules, and computer-user interface.
-
-\section{The Copyright Act}
-
-The copyright act is of little, if any, help in determining the definition
-of a derivative work of software. However, the applicable provisions do
-provide some, albeit quite cursory, guidance. Section 101 of the Copyright
-Act sets forth the following definitions:
-
-\begin{quotation}
-A ``computer program'' is a set of statements or instructions to be used
-directly or indirectly in a computer in order to bring about a certain
-result.
-
-A ``derivative work'' is a work based upon one or more preexisting works,
-such as a translation, musical arrangement, dramatization,
-fictionalization, motion picture version, sound recording, art
-reproduction, abridgment, condensation, or any other form in which a work
-may be recast, transformed, or adapted. A work consisting of editorial
-revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications which, as a
-whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a ``derivative work''.
-\end{quotation}
-
-These are the only provisions in the Copyright Act relevant to the
-determination of what constitutes a derivative work of a computer
-program. Another provision of the Copyright Act that is also relevant to
-the definition of derivative work is \S 102(b), which reads as follows:
-
-\begin{quotation}
-In no case does copyright protection for an original work of authorship
-extend to any idea, procedure, process, system, method of operation,
-concept, principle, or discovery, regardless of the form in which it is
-described, explained, illustrated, or embodied in such work.
-\end{quotation}
-
-Therefore, before a court can ask whether one program is a derivative work
-of another program, it must be careful not to extend copyright protection
-to any ideas, procedures, processes, systems, methods of operation,
-concepts, principles, or discoveries contained in the original program. It
-is the implementation of this requirement to ``strip out'' unprotectable
-elements that serves as the most frequent issue over which courts
-disagree.
-
-\section{Abstraction, Filtration, Comparison Test}
-
-As mentioned above, the AFC test for determining whether a computer
-program is a derivative work of an earlier program was created by the
-Second Circuit and has since been adopted in the Fifth, Tenth, and
-Eleventh Circuits. Computer Associates Intl., Inc. v. Altai, Inc., 982
-F.2d 693 (2nd Cir. 1992); Engineering Dynamics, Inc. v. Structural
-Software, Inc., 26 F.3d 1335 (5th Cir. 1994); Kepner-Tregoe,
-Inc. v. Leadership Software, Inc., 12 F.3d 527 (5th Cir. 1994); Gates
-Rubber Co. v. Bando Chem. Indust., Ltd., 9 F.3d 823 (10th Cir. 1993);
-Mitel, Inc. v. Iqtel, Inc., 124 F.3d 1366 (10th Cir. 1997); 5 Bateman
-v. Mnemonics,Inc., 79 F.3d 1532 (11th Cir. 1996); and, Mitek Holdings,
-Inc. v. Arce Engineering Co., Inc., 89 F.3d 1548 (11th Cir. 1996).
-
-Under the AFC test, a court first abstracts from the original program its
-constituent structural parts. Then, the court filters from those
-structural parts all unprotectable portions, including incorporated ideas,
-expression that is necessarily incidental to those ideas, and elements
-that are taken from the public domain. Finally, the court compares any and
-all remaining kernels of creative expression to the structure of the
-second program to determine whether the software programs at issue are
-substantially similar so as to warrant a finding that one is the
-derivative work of the other.
-
-Often, the courts that apply the AFC test will perform a quick initial
-comparison between the entirety of the two programs at issue in order to
-help determine whether one is a derivative work of the other. Such an
-holistic comparison, although not a substitute for the full application of
-the AFC test, sometimes reveals a pattern of copying that is not otherwise
-obvious from the application of the AFC test when, as discussed below,
-only certain components of the original program are compared to the second
-program. If such a pattern is revealed by the quick initial comparison,
-the court is more likely to conclude that the second work is indeed a
-derivative of the original.
-
-\subsection{Abstraction}
-
-The first step courts perform under the AFC test is separation of the
-work’s ideas from its expression. In a process akin to reverse
-engineering, the courts dissect the original program to isolate each level
-of abstraction contained within it. Courts have stated that the
-abstractions step is particularly well suited for computer programs
-because it breaks down software in a way that mirrors the way it is
-typically created. However, the Courts have also indicated that this step
-of the AFC test requires substantial guidance from experts, because it is
-extremely fact and situation specific.
-
-By way of example, one set of abstraction levels is, in descending order
-of generality, as follows: the main purpose, system architecture, abstract
-data types, algorithms and data structures, source code, and object
-code. As this set of abstraction levels shows, during the abstraction step
-of the AFC test, the literal elements of the computer program, namely the
-source and object code, are defined as particular levels of
-abstraction. Further, the source and object code elements of a program are
-not the only elements capable of forming the basis for a finding that a
-second work is a derivative of the program. In some cases, in order to
-avoid a length factual inquiry by the court, the owner of the copyright in
-the original work will submit its own list of what it believes to be the
-protected elements of the original program. In those situations, the court
-will forgo performing its own abstraction, and proceed to second step of
-the AFC test.
-
-\subsection{Filtration}
-
-The most difficult and controversial part of the AFC test is the second
-step, which entails the filtration of protectable expression contained in
-the original program from any unprotectable elements nestled therein. In
-determining which elements of a program are unprotectable, courts employ a
-myriad of rules and procedures to sift from a program all the portions
-that are not eligible for copyright protection.
-
-First, as set forth in \S 102(b) of the Copyright Act, any and all ideas
-embodied in program are to be denied copyright protection. However,
-implementing this rule is not as easy as it first appears. The courts
-readily recognize the intrinsic difficulty in distinguishing between ideas
-and expression and that, given the varying nature of computer programs,
-doing so will be done on an ad hoc basis. The first step of the AFC test,
-the abstraction, exists precisely to assist in this endeavor by helping
-the court separate out all the individual elements of the program so that
-they can be independently analyzed for their expressive nature.
-
-A second rule applied by the courts in performing the filtration step of
-the AFC test is the doctrine of merger, which denies copyright protection
-to expression necessarily incidental to the idea being expressed. The
-reasoning behind this doctrine is that when there is only one way to
-express an idea, the idea and the expression merge, meaning that the
-expression cannot receive copyright protection due to the bar on copyright
-protection extending to ideas. In applying this doctrine, a court will ask
-whether the program's use of particular code or structure is necessary for
-the efficient implementation of a certain function or process. If so, then
-that particular code or structure is not protected by copyright and, as a
-result, it is filtered away from the remaining protectable expression.
-
-A third rule applied by the courts in performing the filtration step of
-the AFC test is the doctrine of scenes a faire, which denies copyright
-protection to elements of a computer program that are dictated by external
-factors. Such external factors can include:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
- \renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alph{enumi}}
- \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textup{(\theenumi)}}
-
-\item the mechanical
-specifications of the computer on which a particular program is intended
-to operate;
-
-\item compatibility requirements of other programs with which a
-program is designed to operate in conjunction;
-
-\item computer manufacturers'
-design standards;
-
-\item demands of the industry being serviced; and
-
-widely accepted programming practices within the computer industry.
-
-\end{enumerate}
-
-Any code or structure of a program that was shaped predominantly in
-response to these factors is filtered out and not protected by
-copyright. Lastly, elements of a computer program are also to be filtered
-out if they were taken from the public domain or fail to have sufficient
-originality to merit copyright protection.
-
-Portions of the source or object code of a computer program are rarely
-filtered out as unprotectable elements. However, some distinct parts of
-source and object code have been found unprotectable. For example,
-constant s, the invariable integers comprising part of formulas used to
-perform calculations in a program, are unprotectable. Further, although
-common errors found in two programs can provide strong evidence of
-copying, they are not afforded any copyright protection over and above the
-protection given to the expression containing them.
-
-\subsection{Comparison}
-
-The third and final step of the AFC test entails a comparison of the
-original program's remaining protectable expression to a second
-program. The issue will be whether any of the protected expression is
-copied in the second program and, if so, what relative importance the
-copied portion has with respect to the original program overall. The
-ultimate inquiry is whether there is ``substantial'' similarity between
-the protected elements of the original program and the potentially
-derivative work. The courts admit that this process is primarily
-qualitative rather than quantitative and is performed on a case-by-case
-basis. In essence, the comparison is an ad hoc determination of whether
-the protectable elements of the original program that are contained in the
-second work are significant or important parts of the original program. If
-so, then the second work is a derivative work of the first. If, however,
-the amount of protectable elements copied in the second work are so small
-as to be de minimis, then the second work is not a derivative work of the
-original.
-
-\section{Analytic Dissection Test}
-
-The Ninth Circuit has adopted the analytic dissection test to determine
-whether one program is a derivative work of another. Apple Computer,
-Inc. v. Microsoft Corp., 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994). The analytic
-dissection test first considers whether there are substantial similarities
-in both the ideas and expressions of the two works at issue. Once the
-similar features are identified, analytic dissection is used to determine
-whether any of those similar features are protected by copyright. This
-step is the same as the filtration step in the AFC test. After identifying
-the copyrightable similar features of the works, the court then decides
-whether those features are entitled to ``broad'' or ``thin''
-protection. ``Thin'' protection is given to non-copyrightable facts or
-ideas that are combined in a way that affords copyright protection only
-from their alignment and presentation, while ``broad'' protection is given
-to copyrightable expression itself. Depending on the degree of protection
-afforded, the court then sets the appropriate standard for a subjective
-comparison of the works to determine whether, as a whole, they are
-sufficiently similar to support a finding that one is a derivative work of
-the other. ``Thin'' protection requires the second work be virtually
-identical in order to be held a derivative work of an original, while
-``broad'' protection requires only a ``substantial similarity.''
-
-\section{No Protection for ``Methods of Operation''}
-
-The First Circuit expressly rejected the AFC test and, instead, takes a
-much narrower view of the meaning of derivative work for software. The
-First Circuit holds that ``method of operation,'' as used in \S 102(b) of
-the Copyright Act, refers to the means by which users operate
-computers. Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland Int’l., Inc., 49 F.3d 807
-(1st Cir. 1995). More specifically, the court held that a menu command
-hierarchy for a computer program was uncopyrightable because it did not
-merely explain and present the program’s functional capabilities to the
-user, but also served as a method by which the program was operated and
-controlled. As a result, under the First Circuit’s test, literal copying
-of a menu command hierarchy, or any other ``method of operation,'' can not
-form the basis for a determination that one work is a derivative of
-another. It is also reasonable to expect that the First Circuit will read
-the unprotectable elements set forth in \S 102(b) broadly, and, as such,
-promulgate a definition of derivative work that is much narrower than that
-which exists under the AFC test.
-
-\section{No Test Yet Adopted}
-
-Several circuits, including most notably the Fourth and Seventh, have yet
-to declare their definition of derivative work and whether or not the AFC,
-Analytic Dissection, or some other test best fits their interpretation of
-copyright law. Therefore, uncertainty exists with respect to determining
-the extent to which a software program is a derivative work of another in
-those circuits. However, one may presume that they would give deference to
-the AFC test since it is by far the majority rule amongst those circuits
-that have a standard for defining a software derivative work.
-
-\section{Cases Applying Software Derivative Work Analysis}
-
-In the preeminent case regarding the definition of a derivative work for
-software, Computer Associates v. Altai, the plaintiff alleged that the its
-program, Adapter, which was used to handle the differences in operating
-system calls and services, was infringed by the defendant's competitive
-program, Oscar.  About 30 percent of Oscar was literally the same code as
-that in Adapter.  After the suit began, the defendant rewrote those
-portions of Oscar that contained Adapter code in order to produce a new
-version of Oscar that was functionally competitive with Adapter, without
-have any literal copies of its code.  Feeling slighted still, the
-plaintiff alleged that even the second version of Oscar, despite having no
-literally copied code, also infringed its copyrights.  In addressing that
-question, the Second Circuit promulgated the AFC test.
-
-In abstracting the various levels of the program, the court noted a
-similarity between the two programs' parameter lists and macros.  However,
-following the filtration step of the AFC test, only a handful of the lists
-and macros were protectable under copyright law because they were either
-in the public domain or required by functional demands on the
-program. With respect to the handful of parameter lists and macros that
-did qualify for copyright protection, after performing the comparison step
-of the AFC test, it was reasonable for the district court to conclude that
-they did not warrant a finding of infringement given their relative minor
-contribution to the program as a whole.  Likewise, the similarity between
-the organizational charts of the two programs was not substantial enough
-to support a finding of infringement because they were too simple and
-obvious to contain any original expression.
-
-Perhaps not surprisingly, there have been few cases involving a highly
-detailed software derivative work analysis.  Most often, cases involve
-clearer basis for decision, including frequent bad faith on the part of
-the defendant or over aggressiveness on the part of the plaintiff.
-However, no cases involving free software licensing have ever gone to
-court.  As free software becomes an ever increasingly important part of
-the economy, it remains to be seen whether or not battle lines will be
-drawn over whether particular programs infringe the rights of free
-software developers or whether the entire community, including industry,
-adopts norms avoiding such risk.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-
-\chapter{Modified Source and Binary Distribution}
-\label{source-and-binary}
-
-In this chapter, we discuss the two core sections that define the rights
-and obligations for those who modify, improve, and/or redistribute GPL'd
-software.  These sections, \SS 2--3, define the central core rights and
-requirements of GPL\@.
-
-\section{GPL \S 2: Share and Share Alike}
-
-For many, this is where the ``magic'' happens that defends software
-freedom along the distribution chain.  \S 2 is the only place in the GPL
-that governs the modification controls of copyright law.  If someone
-modifies a GPL'd program, she is bound in the making those changes by \S
-2.  The goal here is to ensure that the body of GPL'd software, as it
-continues and develops, remains Free as in freedom.
-
-To achieve that goal, \S 2 first sets forth that the rights of
-redistribution of modified versions are the same as those for verbatim
-copying, as presented in \S 1.  Therefore, the details of charging,
-keeping copyright notices intact, and other \S 1 provisions are in tact
-here as well.  However, there are three additional requirements.
-
-The first (\S 2(a)) requires that modified files carry ``prominent
-notices'' explaining what changes were made and the date of such changes.
-The goal here is not to put forward some specific way of marking changes,
-or controlling the process of how changes get made.  Primarily, \S 2(a)
-seeks to ensure that those receiving modified versions know what path it
-took to them.  For some users, it is important to know that they are using
-the standard version of program, because while there are many advantages
-to using a fork, there are a few disadvantages.  Users should be informed
-about the historical context of the software version they use, so that
-they can make proper support choices.  Finally, \S 2(a) serves an academic
-purpose --- ensuring that future developers can use a diachronic approach
-to understand the software.
-
-\medskip
-
-The second requirement (\S 2(b)) contains the four short lines that embody
-the legal details of ``share and share alike''.  These 46 words are
-considered by some to be the most worthy of careful scrutiny.  It is worth
-the effort to carefully understand what each clause is saying, because \S
-2(b) can be a source of great confusion when not properly understood.
-
-In considering \S 2(b), first note the qualifier: it only applies to
-derivative works that ``you distribute or publish''.  Despite years of
-education efforts by FSF on this matter, many still believe that modifiers
-of GPL'd software are required by the license to publish or otherwise
-share their changes.  On the contrary, \S 2(b) {\bf does not apply if} the
-changes are never distributed.  Indeed, the freedom to make private,
-personal, unshared changes to software for personal use only should be
-protected and defended\footnote{FSF does maintain that there is an {\bf
-    ethical} obligation to redistribute changes that are generally useful,
-  and often encourages companies and individuals to do so.  However, there
-  is a clear distinction between what one {\bf ought} to do and what one
-  {\bf must} do.}.
-
-Next, we again encounter the same matter that appears in \S 0, in the
-following text:
-\begin{quote}
-... that in whole or part contains or is derived from the Program or any
-  part thereof,
-\end{quote}
-Again, the GPL relies here on what the copyright law says is a derivative
-work.  If, under copyright law, the modified version ``contains or is
-derived from'' the GPL'd software, then the requirements of \S 2(b)
-apply.  The GPL invokes its control as a copyright license over the
-modification of the work in combination with its control over distribution
-of the work.
-
-The final clause of \S 2(b) describes what the licensee must do if she is
-distributing or publishing a work that is deemed a derivative work under
-copyright law --- namely, the following:
-\begin{quote}
-[The work must] be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third parties
-under the terms of this License.
-\end{quote}
-That is probably the most tightly-packed phrase in all of the GPL\@.
-Consider each subpart carefully.
-
-The work ``as a whole'' is what is to be licensed.  This is an important
-point that \S 2 spends an entire paragraph explaining; thus this phrase is
-worthy of a lengthy discussion here.  As a programmer modifies a software
-program, she generates new copyrighted material --- fixing expressions of
-ideas into the tangible medium of electronic file storage.  That
-programmer is indeed the copyright holder of those new changes.  However,
-those changes are part and parcel to the original worked distributed to
-the programmer under GPL\@.  Thus, the license of the original work
-affects the license of the new whole derivative work.
-
-% {\cal I}
-\newcommand{\gplusi}{$\mathcal{G\!\!+\!\!I}$}
-\newcommand{\worki}{$\mathcal{I}$}
-\newcommand{\workg}{$\mathcal{G}$}
-
-\label{separate-and-independent}
-
-It is certainly possible to take an existing independent work (called
-\worki{}) and combine it with a GPL'd program (called \workg{}).  The
-license of \worki{}, when it is distributed as a separate and independent
-work, remains the prerogative of the copyright holder of \worki{}.
-However, when \worki{} is combined with \workg{}, it produces a new work
-that is the combination of the two (called \gplusi{}).  The copyright of
-this derivative work, \gplusi{}, is jointly held by the original copyright
-holder of each of the two works.
-
-In this case, \S 2 lays out the terms by which \gplusi{} may be
-distributed and copied.  By default, under copyright law, the copyright
-holder of \worki{} would not have been permitted to distribute \gplusi{};
-copyright law forbids it without the expressed permission of the copyright
-holder of \workg{}.  (Imagine, for a moment, if \workg{} were a Microsoft
-product --- would they give you permission to create and distribute
-\gplusi{} without paying them a hefty sum?)  The license of \workg{}, the
-GPL, sets forth ahead of time options for the copyright holder of \worki{}
-who may want to create and distribute \gplusi{}.  This pre-granted
-permission to create and distribute derivative works, provided the terms
-of GPL are upheld, goes far above and beyond the permissions that one
-would get with a typical work not covered by a copyleft license.  Thus, to
-say that this restriction is any way unreasonable is simply ludicrous.
-
-\medskip
-
-The next phrase of note in \S 2(b) is ``licensed ... at no charge''.  This
-is a source of great confusion to many.  Not a month goes by that FSF does
-not receive an email that claims to point out ``a contradiction in GPL''
-because \S 2 says that redistributors cannot charge for modified versions
-of GPL'd software, but \S 1 says that they can.  The ``at no charge''
-means not that redistributors cannot charge for performing the acts
-governed by copyright law\footnote{Recall that you could by default charge
-  for any acts not governed by copyright law, because the license controls
-  are confined by copyright.}, but rather that they cannot charge a fee
-for the \emph{license itself}.  In other words, redistributors of
-(modified and unmodified) GPL'd works may charge any amount they choose
-for performing the modifications on contract or the act of transferring
-the copy to the customer, but they may not charge a separate licensing fee
-for the software.
-
-\S 2(b) further states that the software must ``be licensed ... to all
-third parties''.  This too has led to some confusions, and feeds the
-misconception mentioned earlier --- that all modified versions must made
-available to the public at large.  However, the text here does not say
-that.  Instead, it says that the licensing under terms of the GPL must
-extend to anyone who might, through the distribution chain, receive a copy
-of the software.  Distribution to all third parties is not mandated here,
-but \S 2(b) does require redistributors to license the derivative works in
-a way that is extends to all third parties who may ultimately receive a
-copy of the software.
-
-In summary, \S 2(b) says what terms under which the third parties must
-receive this no-charge license.  Namely, they receive it ``under the terms
-of this License'', the GPL.  When an entity \emph{chooses} to redistribute
-a derivative work of GPL'd software, the license of that whole derivative
-work must be GPL and only GPL\@.  In this manner, \S 2(b) dovetails nicely
-with \S 6 (as discussed in Section~\ref{GPLs6} of this tutorial).
-
-\medskip
-
-The final paragraph of \S 2 is worth special mention.  It is possible and
-quite common to aggregate various software programs together on one
-distribution medium.  Computer manufacturers do this when they ship a
-pre-installed hard drive, and GNU/Linux distribution vendors do this to
-give a one-stop CD or URL for a complete operating system with necessary
-applications.  The GPL very clearly permits such ``mere aggregation'' with
-programs under any license.  Despite what you hear from its critics, the
-GPL is nothing like a virus, not only because the GPL is good for you and
-a virus is bad for you, but also because simple contact with a GPL'd
-code-base does not impact the license of other programs.  Actual effort
-must be expended by a programmer to cause a work to fall under the terms
-of the GPL.  Redistributors are always welcome to simply ship GPL'd
-software alongside proprietary software or other unrelated Free Software,
-as long as the terms of GPL are adhered to for those packages that are
-truly GPL'd.
-
-\section{GPL \S 3: Producing Binaries}
-\label{GPL-Section-3}
-% FIXME: need name of a novelist who writes very obscurely and obliquely.
-
-Software is a strange beast when compared to other copyrightable works.
-It is currently impossible to make a film or a book that can be truly
-obscured.  Ultimately, the full text of a novel, even one written by
-William Faulkner, must presented to the reader as words in some
-human-readable language so that they can enjoy the work.  A film, even one
-directed by David Lynch, must be perceptible by human eyes and ears to
-have any value.
-
-Software is not so.  While the source code, the human-readable
-representation of software is of keen interest to programmers, users and
-programmers alike cannot make the proper use of software in that
-human-readable form.  Binary code --- the ones and zeros that the computer
-can understand --- must be predicable and attainable for the software to
-be fully useful.  Without the binaries, be they in object or executable
-form, the software serves only the didactic purposes of computer science.
-
-Under copyright law, binary representations of the software are simply
-derivative works of the source code.  Applying a systematic process (i.e.,
-``compilation'') to a work of source code yields binary code.  The binary
-code is now a new work of expression fixed in the tangible medium of
-electronic file storage.
-
-Therefore, for GPL'd software to be useful, the GPL, since it governs the
-rules for creation of derivative works, must grant permission for the
-generation of binaries.  Furthermore, notwithstanding the relative
-popularity of source-based GNU/Linux distributions like Gentoo, users find
-it extremely convenient to receive distribution of binary software.  Such
-distribution is the redistribution of derivative works of the software's
-source code.  \S 3 addresses the matter of creation and distribution of
-binary versions.
-
-Under \S 3, binary versions may be created and distributed under the terms
-of \S\S 1--2, so all the material previously discussed applies here.
-However, \S 3 must go a bit further.  Access to the software's source code
-is an incontestable prerequisite for the exercise of the fundamental
-freedoms to modify and improve the software.  Making even the most trivial
-changes to a software program at the binary level is effectively
-impossible.  \S 3 must ensure that the binaries are never distributed
-without the source code, so that these freedoms are ensured to be passed
-along the distribution chain.
-
-\S 3 permits distribution of binaries, and then offers three options for
-distribution of source code along with binaries.  The most common and the
-least complicated is the option given under \S 3(a).
-
-\S 3(a) offers the option to directly accompany the source code alongside
-the distribution of the binaries.  This is by far the most convenient
-option for most distributors, because it means that the source-code
-provision obligations are fully completed at the time of binary
-distribution (more on that later).
-
-Under \S 3(a), the source code provided must be the ``corresponding source
-code''.  Here ``corresponding'' primarily means that the source code
-provided must be that code used to produce the binaries being distributed.
-That source code must also be ``complete''.  A later paragraph of \S 3
-explains in detail what is meant by ``complete''.  In essence, it is all
-the material that a programmer of average skill would need to actually use
-the source code to produce the binaries she has received.  Complete source
-is required so that, if the licensee chooses, she should be able to
-exercise her freedoms to modify and redistribute changes.  Without the
-complete source, it would not be possible to make changes that were
-actually directly derived from the version received.
-
-Furthermore, \S 3 is defending against a tactic that has in fact been seen
-in FSF's GPL enforcement.  Under GPL, if you pay a high price for a copy
-of GPL'd binaries (which comes with corresponding source, of course), you
-have the freedom to redistribute that work at any fee you choose, or not
-at all.  Sometimes, companies attempt a GPL-violating cozenage whereby
-they produce very specialized binaries (perhaps for an obscure
-architecture), and then giving source code that does correspond, but not
-giving the ``incantations'' and build plans they used to make that source
-compile into the specialized binaries.  Therefore, \S 3 that the source
-code include ``meta-material'' like scripts, interface definitions, and
-other material that is used to ``control compilation and installation'' of
-the binaries.  In this manner, those further down the distribution chain
-are assured that they have the unabated freedom to build their own
-derivative works from the sources provided.
-
-FSF (as authors of GPL) realizes that software distribution comes in many
-forms.  Embedded manufacturers, for example, have the freedom to put
-GPL'd software into their PDAs with very tight memory and space
-constraints.  In such cases, putting the source right alongside the
-binaries on the machine itself might not be an option.  While it is
-recommended that this be the default way that people comply with GPL, the
-GPL does provide options when such distribution is infeasible.
-
-\S 3, therefore, allows source code to be provided on any physical
-``medium customarily used for software interchange''.  By design, this
-phrase covers a broad spectrum.  At best, FSF can viably release a new GPL
-every ten years or so.  Thus, phrases like this must be adaptive to
-changes in the technology.  When GPL version 2 was first published in June
-1991, distribution on magnetic tape was still common, and CD was
-relatively new.  Today, CD is the default, and for larger systems DVD-R is
-gaining adoption.  This language must adapt with changing technology.
-
-Meanwhile, the binding created by the word ``customarily'' is key.  Many
-incorrectly believe that distributing binary on CD and source on the
-Internet is acceptable.  In the corporate world, it is indeed customary to
-simply download CDs worth of data over a T1 or email large file
-attachments.  However, even today in the USA, many computer users with
-CD-ROM drives are not connected to the Internet, and most people connected
-to the Internet are connected via a 56K dial-up connection.  Downloading
-CDs full of data is not customary for them in the least.  In some cities
-in Africa, computers are becoming more common, but Internet connectivity
-is still available only at a few centralized locations.  Thus, the
-``customs'' here have must have a worldwide scope in context, and simply
-providing source on the Internet --- while it is a kind, friendly and
-useful thing to do --- is not usually sufficient.
-
-Note, however, a major exception to this rule, given by the last paragraph
-of \S 3.  \emph{If} distribution of the binary files is made only on the
-Internet (i.e., ``from a designated place''), \emph{then} simply providing
-the source code right alongside the binaries in the same place is
-sufficient to comply with \S 3.
-
-\medskip
-
-As is shown above, Under \S 3(a), embedded manufacturers can put the
-binaries on the device and ship the source code along on a CD\@.  However,
-sometimes this turns out to be too costly.  Including a CD with every
-device could prove too costly, and may practically (although not legally)
-prohibit using GPL'd software.  For this situation and others like it, \S
-3(b) is available.
-
-\S 3(b) allows a distributor of binaries to instead provide a written
-offer for source code alongside those binaries.  This is useful in two
-specific ways.  First, it may turn out that most users do not request the
-source, and thus the cost of producing the CDs is saved --- a financial
-and environmental windfall.  In addition, along with a \S 3(b) compliant
-offer for source, a binary distributor might choose to \emph{also} give a
-URL for source code.  Many who would otherwise need a CD with source might
-turn out to have those coveted high bandwidth connections, and are able to
-download the source instead --- again yielding environmental and financial
-windfalls.
-
-However, note that regardless of how many users prefer to get the source
-online, that \S 3(b) does place lasting long-term obligations on the
-binary distributor.  The binary distributor must be prepared for three
-years to honor that offer for source, and ship it out (just as they would
-have had to do under \S 3(a)) at a moment's notice when they receive such
-a request.  There is real organizational cost here: support engineers for
-three years must be trained how to route source requests, and source CD
-images for every release version for the last three years must be kept on
-hand to burn such CDs quickly.  The requests might not even come from
-actual customers; the offer for source must be valid for ``any third
-party''.
-
-That phrase is another place where some get confused --- thinking again
-that full public distribution of source is required.  The offer for source
-must be valid for ``any third party'' because of the freedoms of
-redistribution granted by \S\S 1--2.  A company may ship a binary image
-and an offer for source to only one customer.  However, under GPL, that
-customer has the right to redistribute that software to the world if she
-likes.  When she does, that customer has an obligation to make sure that
-those who receive the software from her can exercise their freedoms under
-GPL --- including the freedom to modify, rebuild, and redistribute the
-source code.
-
-\S 3(c) is created to save her some trouble, because by itself \S 3(b)
-would unfairly favor large companies.  compromise.  \S 3(b) allows the
-separation of the binary software from the key tool that people can use
-to exercise their freedom.  The GPL permits this separation because it is
-good for redistributors, and those users who turn out not to need the
-source.  However, to ensure equal rights for all software users, anyone
-along the distribution chain must have the right to get the source and
-exercise those freedoms that require it.
-
-Meanwhile, \S 3(b)'s compromise primarily benefits companies who
-distribute binary software commercially.  Without \S 3(c), that benefit
-would be at the detriment of the companies' customers; the burden of
-source code provision would be unfairly shifted to the companies'
-customers.  A customer, who had received binaries with a \S 3(b)-compliant
-offer, would be required under GPL (sans \S 3(c)) to acquire the source,
-merely to give a copy of the software to a friend who needed it.  \S 3(c)
-reshifts this burden to entity who benefits from \S 3(b).
-
-\S 3(c) allows those who undertake \emph{non-commercial} distribution to
-simply pass along a \S 3(b)-compliant source code offer.  The customer who
-wished to give a copy to her friend can now do so without provisioning the
-source, as long as she gives that offer to her friend.  By contrast, if
-she wanted to go into business for herself selling CDs of that software,
-she would have to acquire the source and either comply via \S 3(a), or
-write her own \S 3(b)-compliant source offer.
-
-This process is precisely the reason why a \S 3(b) source offer must be
-valid for all third parties.  At the time the offer is made, there is no
-way of knowing who might end up non-commercially receiving a copy of the
-software.  Companies who choose to comply via \S 3(b) must thus be
-prepared to honor all incoming source code requests.  For this and the
-many other additional necessary complications under \S\S 3(b--c), it is
-only rarely a better option than complying via \S 3(a).
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\chapter{The Implied Patent Grant in GPL}
-
-We digress again briefly from our section-by-section consideration of GPL
-to consider the interaction between the terms of GPL and patent law.  The
-GPL, despite being silent with respect to patents, actually confers on its
-licensees more rights to a licensor's patents than those licenses that
-purport to address the issue.  This is the case because patent law, under
-the doctrine of implied license, gives to each distribute of a patented
-article a license from the distributor to practice any patent claims owned
-or held by the distributor that cover the distributed article.  The
-implied license also extends to any patent claims owned or held by the
-distributor that cover ``reasonably contemplated uses'' of the patented
-article.  To quote the Federal Circuit Court of Appeals, the highest court
-for patent cases other than the Supreme Court:
-
-\begin{quotation}
-Generally, when a seller sells a product without restriction, it in
-effect promises the purchaser that in exchange for the price paid, it will
-not interfere with the purchaser's full enjoyment of the product
-purchased. The buyer has an implied license under any patents of the
-seller that dominate the product or any uses of the product to which the
-parties might reasonably contemplate the product will be put.
-\end{quotation}
-Hewlett-Packard Co. v. Repeat-O-Type Stencil Mfg. Corp., Inc., 123 F.3d
-1445 (Fed. Cir. 1997).
-
-Of course, free software is licensed, not sold, and there are indeed
-restrictions placed on the licensee, but those differences are not likely
-to prevent the application of the implied license doctrine to free
-software, because software licensed under the GPL grants the licensee the
-right to make, use, and sell the software, each of which are exclusive
-rights of a patent holder.  Therefore, although the GPL does not expressly
-grant the licensee the right to do those things under any patents the
-licensor may have that cover the software or its reasonably contemplated
-uses, by licensing the software under the GPL, the distributor impliedly
-licenses those patents to the GPL licensee with respect to the GPL
-licensed software.
-
-An interesting issue regarding this implied patent license of GPL'd
-software is what would be considered ``uses of the [software] to which the
-parties might reasonably contemplate the product will be put.''  A clever
-advocate may argue that the implied license granted by GPL is larger in
-scope than the express license in other free software licenses with
-express patent grants, in that, the patent license clause of many of those
-licenses are specifically limited to the patent claims covered by the code
-as licensed by the patentee.
-
-To the contrary, GPL's implied patent license grants the GPL licensee a
-patent license to do much more than just that because the GPL licensee,
-under the doctrine of implied patent license, is free to practice any
-patent claims held by the licensor that cover ``reasonably contemplated
-uses'' of the GPL'd code, which may very well include creation and
-distribution of derivative works since the GPL's terms, under which the
-patented code is distributed, expressly permits such activity.
-
-Further supporting this result is the Federal Circuit's pronouncement that
-the recipient of a patented article has, not only an implied license to
-make, use, and sell the article, but also an implied patent license to
-repair the article to enable it to function properly.  Bottom Line Mgmt.,
-Inc. v. Pan Man, Inc., 228 F.3d 1352 (Fed. Cir. 2000).  Additionally, the
-Federal Circuit extended that rule to include any future recipients of the
-patented article, not just the direct recipient from the distributor.
-This theory comports well with the idea of free software, whereby software
-is distributed amongst many entities within the community for the purpose
-of constant evolution and improvement.  In this way, the law of implied
-patent license used by the GPL ensures that the community mutually
-benefits from the licensing of patents to any single community member.
-
-Note that simply because GPL'd software has an implied patent license does
-not mean that any patents held by a distributor of GPL'd code become
-worthless.  To the contrary, the patents are still valid and enforceable
-against either:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
- \renewcommand{\theenumi}{\alph{enumi}}
- \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\textup{(\theenumi)}}
-
-\item any software other than that licensed under the GPL by the patent
-  holder, and
-
-\item any party that does not comply with the GPL
-with respect to the licensed software.
-\end{enumerate}
-
-\newcommand{\compB}{$\mathcal{B}$}
-\newcommand{\compA}{$\mathcal{A}$}
-
-For example, if Company \compA{} has a patent on advanced web browsing, but
-also licenses a web browsing software program under the GPL, then it
-cannot assert the patent against any party that takes a license to its
-program under the GPL.  However, if a party uses that program without
-complying with the GPL, then Company \compA{} can assert, not just copyright
-infringement claims against the non-GPL-compliant party, but also
-infringement of the patent, because the implied patent license only
-extends to use of the software in accordance with the GPL.  Further, if
-Company \compB{} distributes a competitive advanced web browsing program,
-Company \compA{} is free to assert its patent against any user or
-distributor of that product.  It is irrelevant whether Company \compB's
-program is distributed under the GPL, as Company \compB{} can not grant
-implied licenses to Company \compA's patent.
-
-This result also reassures companies that they need not fear loosing their
-proprietary value in patents to competitors through the GPL implied patent
-license, as only those competitors who adopt and comply with the GPL's
-terms can benefit from the implied patent license.  To continue the
-example above, Company \compB{} does not receive a free ride on Company
-\compA's patent, as Company \compB{} has not licensed-in and then
-redistributed Company A's advanced web browser under the GPL.  If Company
-\compB{} does do that, however, Company \compA{} still has not lost
-competitive advantage against Company \compB{}, as Company \compB{} must then,
-when it re-distributes Company \compA's program, grant an implied license
-to any of its patents that cover the program.  Further, if Company \compB{}
-relicenses an improved version of Company A's program, it must do so under
-the GPL, meaning that any patents it holds that cover the improved version
-are impliedly licensed to any licensee.  As such, the only way Company
-\compB{} can benefit from Company \compA's implied patent license, is if it,
-itself, distributes Company \compA's software program and grants an
-implied patent license to any of its patents that cover that program.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\chapter{Defending Freedom On Many Fronts}
-
-Chapters~\ref{run-and-verbatim} and ~\ref{source-and-binary} presented the
-core freedom-defending provisions of GPL\@, which are in \S\S 0--3.  \S\S
-4--7 of the GPL are designed to ensure that \S\S 0--3 are not infringed,
-are enforceable, are kept to the confines of copyright law and are not
-trumped by other copyright agreements or components of other entirely
-separate legal systems.  In short, while \S\S 0--3 are the parts of the
-license that defend the freedoms of users and programmers, \S\S 4--7 are
-the parts of the license that keep the playing field clear so that \S\S
-0--3 can do their jobs.
-
-\section{GPL \S 4: Termination on Violation}
-\label{GPLs4}
-
-\S 4 is GPL's termination clause.  Upon first examination, it seems
-strange for a license that has the goal of defending users and programmers
-freedoms for perpetuity in an irrevocable way would have such a clause.
-However, upon further examination, the difference between irrevocability
-and this termination clause becomes clear.
-
-The GPL is irrevocable in the sense that once a copyright holder grants
-rights for someone to copy, modify and redistribute the software under
-terms of the GPL, they cannot later revoke that grant.  Since the GPL has
-no provision allowing the copyright holder to take such a prerogative, the
-license is granted as long as the copyright remains in effect\footnote{In
-  the USA, due to unfortunate legislation, the length of copyright is
-  nearly perpetual, even though the Constitution forbids perpetual
-  copyright.}.  The copyright holder has the right to relicense the same
-work under different licenses (see Section~\ref{Proprietary Relicensing}
-of this tutorial), or to stop distributing the GPL'd version (assuming \S
-3(b) was never used), but the she may not revoke the rights under GPL
-already granted.
-
-In fact, when an entity looses their right to copy, modify and distribute
-GPL'd software, it is because of their \emph{own actions}, not that of
-the copyright holder.  The copyright holder does not decided when \S 4
-termination occurs (if ever), the actions of the licensee does.
-
-Under copyright law, the GPL has granted various rights and freedoms to
-the licensee to perform specific types of copying, modification, and
-redistribution.  By default, all other types of copying, modification, and
-redistribution are prohibited.  \S 4 says that if you undertake any of
-those other types (e.g., redistributing binary-only in violation of \S 3),
-then all rights under the license --- even those otherwise permitted for
-those who have not violated --- terminate automatically.
-
-\S 4 gives GPL teeth.  If licensees fail to adhere to the license, then
-they are stuck.  They must to completely cease and desist from all
-copying, modification and distribution of that GPL'd software.
-
-At that point, violating licensees must gain the forgiveness of the
-copyright holder to have their rights restored.  Alternatively, they could
-negotiate another agreement, separate from GPL, with the copyright
-holder.  Both are common practice.
-
-At FSF, it is part of the mission to spread software freedom.  When FSF
-enforces GPL, the goal is to bring the violator back into compliance as
-quickly as possible, and redress the damage caused by the violation.
-That is FSF's steadfast position in a violation negotiation --- comply
-with the license and respect freedom.
-
-However, other entities who do not share the full ethos of software
-freedom as institutionalized by FSF pursue GPL violations differently.
-MySQL AB, a company that produces the GPL'd MySQL database, upon
-discovering GPL violations typically negotiates a proprietary software
-license separately for a fee.  While this practice is not one that FSF
-would ever consider undertaking or even endorsing, it is a legal way for
-copyright holders to proceed.
-
-\section{GPL \S 5: Acceptance, Copyright Style}
-\label{GPLs5}
-
-\S 5 brings us to perhaps the most fundamental misconception and common
-confusion about GPL\@.  Because of the prevalence of proprietary software,
-most users, programmers, and lawyers alike tend to be more familiar with
-EULAs.  EULAs are believed by their authors to be contracts, requiring
-formal agreement between the licensee and the software distributor to be
-valid.  This has led to mechanisms like ``shrink-wrap'' and ``click-wrap''
-as mechanisms to perform acceptance ceremonies with EULAs.
-
-The GPL does not need contract law to ``transfer rights''.  No rights are
-transfered between parties.  By contrast, the GPL is permission slip to
-undertake activities that would otherwise been prohibited by copyright law.
-As such, it needs no acceptance ceremony; the licensee is not even
-required to accept the license.
-
-However, without the GPL, the activities of copying, modifying and
-distributing the software would have otherwise been prohibited.  So, the
-GPL says that you only accepted the license by undertaking activities that
-you would have otherwise been prohibited without your license under GPL\@.
-This is a certainly subtle point, and requires a mindset quite different
-from the contractual approach taken by EULA authors.
-
-An interesting side benefit to \S 5 is that the bulk of users of Free
-Software are not required to accept the license.  Undertaking fair and
-unregulated use of the work, for example, does not bind you to the GPL,
-since you are not engaging in activity that is otherwise controlled by
-copyright law.  Only when you engage in those activities that might have an
-impact on the freedom of others does license acceptance occur and the
-terms begin to bind you to fair and equitable sharing of the software.  In
-other words, the GPL only kicks in when it needs to for the sake of
-freedom.
-
-\section{GPL \S 6: GPL, My One and Only}
-\label{GPLs6}
-
-A point that was glossed over in Section~\ref{GPLs4}'s discussion of \S 4
-was the irrevocable nature of the GPL\@.  The GPL is indeed irrevocable,
-and it is made so formally \S 6.
-
-The first sentence in \S 6 ensures that as software propagates down the
-distribution chain, that each licensor can pass along the license to each
-new licensee.  Under \S 6, the act of distributing automatically grants a
-license from the original licensor to the next recipient.  This creates a
-chain of grants that ensure that everyone in the distribution has rights
-under the GPL\@.  In a mathematical sense, this bounds the bottom ---
-making sure that future licensees get no fewer rights than than the
-licensee before.
-
-The second sentence of \S 6 does the opposite; it bounds from the top.  It
-prohibits any licensor along the distribution chain from placing
-additional restrictions on the user.  In other words, no additional
-requirements may trump the rights and freedoms given by GPL\@.
-
-The final sentence of \S 6 makes it abundantly clear that no individual
-entity in the distribution chain is responsible for the compliance of any
-other.  This is particularly important for non-commercial users who have
-passed along a source offer under \S 3(c), as they cannot be assured that
-the issuer of the offer will honor their \S 3 obligations.
-
-In short, \S 6 says that your license for the software is your one and
-only copyright license allowing you to copy, modify and distribute the
-software.
-
-\section{GPL \S 7: ``Give Software Liberty of Give It Death!''}
-\label{GPLs7}
-
-In essence, \S 7 is a verbosely worded way of saying for non-copyright
-systems what \S 6 says for copyright.  If there exists any reason that a
-distributor knows of that would prohibit later licensees from exercising
-their full rights under GPL, then distribution is prohibited.
-
-Originally, this was designed as the title of this section suggests --- as
-a last ditch effort to make sure that freedom was upheld.  However, in
-modern times, it has come to give much more.  Now that the body of GPL'd
-software is so large, patent holders who would want to be distributors of
-GPL'd software have a tough choice.  They must choose between avoiding
-distribution of GPL'd software that exercises the teachings of their
-patents, or grant a royalty-free, irrevocable, non-exclusive license to
-those patents.  Many companies, including IBM, the largest patent holder
-in the world, have chosen the latter.
-
-Thus, \S 7 is rarely gives software death by stopping its distribution.
-Instead, it is inspiring patent holders to share their patents in the same
-freedom-defending way that they share their copyrighted works.
-
-\section{GPL \S 8: Excluding Unfreedonia}
-\label{GPLs8}
-
-\S 8 is rarely used by copyright holders.  Its intention is that, if
-particular country, say Unfreedonia, grant particular patents or allow
-copyrighted interfaces (no country to our knowledge even permits those
-yet), that the GPL'd software can continue in free and unabated
-distribution in the countries where such controls do not exist.
-
-It is a partial ``out'' from \S 7.  Without \S 8, if a copyright holder
-knew of a patent in a particular country licensed in a GPL-incompatible
-way, then she could not distribute under GPL, because the work would
-legitimately end up in the hands of citizens of Unfreedonia.
-
-It is an inevitable but sad reality that some countries are freer than
-others.  \S 8 exists to permit distribution on those countries that are
-free without otherwise negating parts of the license.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\chapter{Odds, Ends, and Absolutely No Warranty}
-
-\S 0--7 constitute the freedom-defending terms of the GPL.  The balance
-of the GPL handles administrivia and issues concerning warranties and
-liability.
-
-\section{GPL \S 9: FSF as stewards of GPL}
-\label{GPLs9}
-
-FSF reserves the exclusive right to publish future versions of the GPL\@;
-\S 9 expresses this.  While the stewardship of the copyrights on the body
-of GPL'd software around the world is shared among thousands of
-individuals and organizations, the license itself needs a single steward.
-Forking of the code is often regrettable but basically innocuous.  Forking
-of licensing is disastrous.
-
-FSF has only released two versions of GPL --- in 1989 and 1991.  GPL,
-version 3, is under current internal drafting.  FSF's plan is to have a
-long and engaging comment period.  The goal of GPL is defend freedom, and
-a gigantic community depends on that freedom now.  FSF hopes to take all
-stakeholders' opinions under advisement.
-
-\section{GPL \S 10: Relicensing Permitted}
-\label{GPLs10}
-
-\S 10 reminds the licensee of what is already implied by the nature of
-copyright law.  Namely, the copyright holder of a particular software
-program has the prerogative to grant alternative agreements under separate
-copyright licenses.
-
-\section{GPL \S 11: No Warranty}
-\label{GPLs11}
-
-All warranty disclaimer language tends to be shouted in all capital
-letters. Apparently, there was once a case where the disclaimer language
-of an agreement was negated because it was not ``conspicuous'' to one of
-the parties. Therefore, to make such language ``conspicuous'', people
-started placing it in bold or capitalizing the entire text. It now seems
-to be voodoo tradition of warranty disclaimer writing.
-
-Some have argued the GPL is unenforceable in some jurisdictions because
-its disclaimer of warranties is impermissibly broad.  However, \S 11
-contains a jurisdictional savings provision, which states that it is to be
-interpreted only as broadly as allowed by applicable law.  Such a
-provision ensures that both it, and the entire GPL, is enforceable in any
-jurisdiction, regardless of any particular law regarding the
-permissibility of certain warranty disclaimers.
-
-Finally, one important point to remember when reading \S 11 is that \S 1
-permits the sale of warranty as an additional service, which \S 11 affirms.
-
-\section{GPL, \S 12: Limitation of Liability}
-\label{GPLs12}
-
-There are many types of warranties, and in some jurisdictions some of them
-cannot be disclaimed. Therefore, usually agreements will have both a
-warranty disclaimer and a limitation of liability, as we have in \S 12. \S
-11 thus gets rid of all implied warranties that can legally be
-disavowed. \S 12, in turn, limits the liability of the actor for any
-warranties that cannot legally be disclaimed in a particular jurisdiction.
-
-Again, some have argued the GPL is unenforceable in some jurisdictions
-because its limitation of liability is impermissibly broad.  However, \S
-12, just like its sister, \S 11, contains a jurisdictional savings
-provision, which states that it is to be interpreted only as broadly as
-allowed by applicable law.  As stated above, such a provision ensures that
-both \S 12, and the entire GPL, is enforceable in any jurisdiction,
-regardless of any particular law regarding the permissibility of limiting
-liability.
-
-So ends the terms and conditions of the GNU General Public License.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\chapter{The Lesser GPL}
-
-As we have seen in our consideration of the GPL, its text is specifically
-designed to cover all possible derivative works under copyright law.  Our
-goal in designing GPL was to make sure that any derivative work of GPL'd
-software was itself released under GPL when distributed.  Reaching as far
-as copyright law will allow is the most direct way to reach that goal.
-
-However, while the strategic goal is to bring as much Free Software into
-the world as possible, particular tactical situations of software freedom
-dictate different means.  Extending the copyleft effect as far as
-copyright law allows is not always the most prudent course in reaching the
-goal.  In particular situations, even those of us with the goal of
-building a world where all published software is Free Software realize
-that full copyleft does not best serve us.  The GNU Lesser General Public
-License (``GNU LGPL'') was designed as a solution for such situations.
-
-\section{The First LGPL'd Program}
-
-The first example that FSF encountered where such altered tactics were
-needed was when work began on the GNU C Library.  The GNU C Library would
-become (and today, now is) a drop-in replacement for existing C Libraries.
-On a Unix-like operating system, C is the lingua franca and the C library
-is an essential component for all programs.  It is extremely difficult to
-construct a program that will run with ease on a Unix-like operating
-system without making use of services provided by the C Library --- even
-if the program is written in a language other than C\@.  Effectively, all
-user application programs that run on any modern Unix-like system must
-make use of the C Library.
-
-By the time work began on the GNU implementation of the C Library, there
-were already many C libraries in existence from a variety of vendors.
-Every proprietary Unix vendor had one, and many third parties produced
-smaller versions for special purpose use.  However, our goal was to create
-a C library that would provide equivalent functionality to these other C
-libraries on a Free Software operating system (which in fact happens today
-on modern GNU/Linux systems, which all use the GNU C Library).
-
-Unlike existing GNU application software, however, the licensing
-implications of releasing the GNU C Library (``glibc'') under GPL were
-somewhat different.  Applications released under GPL would never
-themselves become part of proprietary software.  However, if glibc were
-released under GPL, it would require that any application distributed for
-the GNU/Linux platform be released under GPL\@.
-
-Since all applications on a Unix-like system depend on the C library, it
-means that they must link with that library to function on the system.  In
-other words, all applications running on a Unix-like system must be
-combined with the C library to form a new whole derivative work that is
-composed of the original application and the C library.  Thus, if glibc
-were GPL'd, each and every application distributed for use on GNU/Linux
-would also need to be GPL'd, since to even function, such applications
-would need to be combined into larger derivative works by linking with
-glibc.
-
-At first glance, such an outcome seems like a windfall for Free Software
-advocates, since it stops all proprietary software development on
-GNU/Linux systems.  However, the outcome is a bit more subtle.  In a world
-where many C Libraries already exist, many of which could easily be ported
-to GNU/Linux, a GPL'd glibc would be unlikely to succeed.  Proprietary
-vendors would see the excellent opportunity to license their C libraries
-to anyone who wished to write proprietary software for GNU/Linux systems.
-The de-facto standard for C libraries on GNU/Linux would likely be not
-glibc, but the most popular proprietary one.
-
-Meanwhile, the actual goal of releasing glibc under GPL --- to ensure no
-proprietary applications on GNU/Linux --- would be unattainable in this
-scenario.  Furthermore, users of those proprietary applications would also
-be users of a proprietary C library, not the Free glibc.
-
-The Lesser GPL was initially conceived to handle this scenario.  It was
-clear that the existence of proprietary applications for GNU/Linux was
-inevitable.  Since there were so many C libraries already in existence, a
-new one under GPL would not stop that tide.  However, if the new C library
-were released under a license that (a) permitted proprietary applications
-to link with it, but (b) made sure that the library itself remained Free,
-an ancillary goal could be met.  Users of proprietary applications, while
-they would not have the freedom to copy, share, modify and redistribute
-the application itself, would have the freedom to do so with respect to
-the C library.
-
-There was no way the license of glibc could stop or even slow the creation
-of proprietary applications on GNU/Linux.  However, loosening the
-restrictions on the licensing of glibc ensured that nearly all proprietary
-applications at least used a Free C library rather than a proprietary one.
-This trade-off is central to the reasoning behind the LGPL\@.
-
-Of course, many people who use the LGPL today are not thinking in these
-terms.  In fact, they are often choosing the LGPL because they are looking
-for a ``compromise'' between the GPL and the X11-style liberal licensing.
-However, understanding FSF's reasoning behind the creation of the LGPL is
-helpful when studying the license.
-
-
-\section{What's the Same?}
-
-Much of the text of the LGPL is identical to the GPL\@.  As we begin our
-discussion of the LGPL, we will first eliminate the sections that are
-identical, or that have the minor modifications of changing the word
-``Program'' to ``Library''.
-
-First, \S 1 of LGPL, the rules for verbatim copying of source, are
-equivalent to those in GPL's \S 1.
-
-Second, \S 8 of LGPL is equivalent \S 4 of GPL\@.  In both licenses, this
-section handles termination in precisely the same manner.
-
-\S 9 in LGPL is equivalent to \S 5 in GPL\@.  Both sections assert that
-the license is a copyright license, and handle the acceptance of those
-copyright terms.
-
-LGPL's \S 10 is equivalent to GPL's \S 6.  They both protect the
-distribution system of Free Software under these licenses, to ensure that
-up, down, and throughout the distribution chain, each recipient of the
-software receives identical rights under the license and no other
-restrictions are imposed.
-
-LGPL's \S 11 is GPL's \S 7.  As discussed, it is used to ensure that
-other claims and legal realities, such as patent licenses and court
-judgments, do not trump the rights and permissions granted by these
-licenses, and requires that distribution be halted if such a trump is
-known to exist.
-
-LGPL's \S 12 adds the same features as GPL's \S 8.  These sections are
-used to allow original copyright holders to forbid distribution in
-countries with draconian laws that would otherwise contradict these
-licenses.
-
-LGPL's \S 13 sets up FSF as the steward of the LGPL, just as GPL's \S 9
-does so for GPL.  Meanwhile, LGPL's \S 14 reminds licensees that copyright
-holders can grant exceptions to the terms of LGPL, just as GPL's \S 10
-reminds licensees of the same thing.
-
-Finally, the assertions of no warranty and limitations of liability are
-identical; thus LGPL's \S 15 and \S 16 are the same as GPL's \S 11 and \S
-12.
-
-Thus, as we see, the entire latter half of the license is identical.
-The parts which set up the legal boundaries and meta-rules for the license
-are the same.  It is our intent that the two licenses operate under the
-same legal mechanisms and are enforced precisely the same way.
-
-We strike a difference only in the early portions of the license.
-Namely, we go into deeper detail of granting various permissions to
-create derivative works, so the redistributors can make some proprietary
-derivatives.  Since we simply do not allow the license to stretch as far
-as copyright law does regarding what derivative works must be relicensed
-under the same terms, we must go further to explain which derivative works
-we will allow to be proprietary.  Thus, we'll see that the front matter
-of the LGPL is a bit more wordy and detailed with regards to the
-permissions granted to those who modify or redistribute the software.
-
-\section{Additions to the Preamble}
-
-Most of LGPL's Preamble is identical, but the last seven paragraphs
-introduce the concepts and reasoning behind creation of the license,
-presenting a more generalized and briefer version of the story with which
-we began our consideration of LGPL\@.
-
-In short, FSF designed LGPL for those edge cases where the freedom of the
-public can better be served by a more lax licensing system.  FSF doesn't
-encourage use of LGPL automatically for any software that happens to be a
-library; rather, FSF suggests that it only be used in specific cases, such
-as the following:
-
-\begin{itemize}
-
-\item to encourage the widest possible use of a Free Software library, so
-  it becomes a de-facto standard over similar, although not
-  interface-identical, proprietary alternatives.
-
-\item to encourage use of a Free Software library that already has
-  interface-identical proprietary competitors that are more developed.
-
-\item to allow a greater number of users to get freedom, by encouraging
-  proprietary companies to pick a free alternative for its otherwise
-  proprietary products.
-
-\end{itemize}
-
-LGPL's preamble sets forth the limits to which the license seeks to go in
-chasing these goals.  LGPL is designed to ensure that users who happen to
-acquire software linked against such libraries have full freedoms with
-respect to that library.  They should have the ability to upgrade to newer
-or modified free version or to make their own modifications, even if they
-cannot modify the primary software program that links to that library.
-
-Finally, the preamble introduces two terms used throughout the license to
-clarify between the different types of derivative works: ``works that uses
-the library'' and ``works based on the library''.  Unlike GPL, LGPL must
-draw some lines regarding derivative works.  We do this here in this
-license because we specifically seek to liberalize the rights afforded to
-those who make derivative works.  In GPL, we reach as far as copyright law
-allows.  In LGPL, we want to draw a line that allows some derivative works
-copyright law would otherwise prohibit if the copyright holder exercised
-his full permitted controls over the work.
-
-\section{A Work that Uses the Library}
-
-In the effort to allow certain proprietary derivative works and prohibit
-others, LGPL distinguishes between two classes of derivative works:
-``works based on the library'' and ``works that uses the library''.  The
-distinction is drawn on the bright line of binary (or runtime) derivative
-works and source code derivatives.  We will first consider the definition
-of a ``work that uses the library'', which is set forth in LGPL \S 5.
-
-We noted in our discussion of GPL \S 3 (discussed in
-Section~\ref{GPL-Section-3} of this document) that binary programs when
-compiled and linked with GPL'd software are derivative works of that GPL'd
-software.  This includes both linking that happens at compile-time (when
-the binary is created) or at runtime (when the binary -- including library
-and main program both -- is loaded into memory by the user).  In GPL,
-binary derivative works are controlled by the terms of the license (in GPL
-\S 3), and distributors of such binary derivatives must release full
-corresponding source under terms of GPL\@.
-
-In the case of LGPL, these are precisely the types of derivative works
-we wish to permit.  This scenario, defined in LGPL as ``a work that uses
-the library'', works as follows:
-
-\newcommand{\workl}{$\mathcal{L}$}
-\newcommand{\lplusi}{$\mathcal{L\!\!+\!\!I}$}
-
-\begin{itemize}
-
-\item A new copyright holder creates a separate and independent work,
-  \worki{}, that makes interface calls (e.g., function calls) to the
-  LGPL'd work, called \workl{}, whose copyright is held by some other
-  party.  Note that since \worki{} and \workl{} are separate and
-  independent works, there is no copyright obligation on this new copyright
-  holder with regard to the licensing of \worki{}, at least with regard to
-  the source code.
-
-\item The new copyright holder, for her software to be useful, realizes
-  that it cannot run without combining \worki{} and \workl{}.
-  Specifically, when she creates a running binary program, that running
-  binary must be a derivative work, called \lplusi{}, that the user can
-  run.
-
-\item Since \lplusi{} is a derivative work of both \worki{} and \workl{},
-  the license of \workl{} (the LGPL) can put restrictions on the license
-  of \lplusi{}.  In fact, this is what LGPL does.
-
-\end{itemize}
-
-We will talk about the specific restrictions LGPL places on ``works that
-use the library'' in detail in Section~\ref{lgpl-section-6}.  For now,
-focus on the logic related to how the LGPL places requirements on the
-license of \lplusi{}.  Note, first of all, the similarity between this
-explanation and that in Section~\ref{separate-and-independent}, which
-discussed the combination of otherwise separate and independent works with
-GPL'd code.  Effectively, what LGPL is doing is saying that when a new
-work is otherwise separate and independent, but has interface calls out to
-an LGPL'd library, then it is considered a ``work that uses the library''.
-
-In addition, the only reason that LGPL has any control over the licensing
-of a ``work that uses the library'' is for the same reason that GPL has
-some say over separate and independent works.  Namely, such controls exist
-because the {\em binary combination\/} (\lplusi{}) that must be created to
-make the separate work (\worki{}) at all useful is a derivative work of
-the LGPL'd software (\workl{}).
-
-Thus, a two-question test that will help indicate if a particular work is
-a ``work that uses the library'' under LGPL is as follows:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-
-\item Is the source code of the new copyrighted work, \worki{}, a
-  completely independent work that stands by itself, and includes no
-  source code from \workl{}?
-
-\item When the source code is compiled, does it create a derivative work
-  by combining with \workl{}, either by static (compile-time) or dynamic
-  (runtime) linking, to create a new binary work, \lplusi{}?
-\end{enumerate}
-
-If the answers to both questions are ``yes'', then \worki{} is most likely
-a ``work that uses the library''.  If the answer to the first question
-``yes'', but the answer to the second question is ``no'', then most likely
-\worki{} is neither a ``work that uses the library'' nor a ``work based on
-the library''.  If the answer to the first question is ``no'', but the
-answer to the second question is ``yes'', then an investigation into
-whether or not \worki{} is in fact a ``work based on the library'' is
-warranted.
-
-\section{A Work Based on the Library}
-
-In short, a ``work based on the library'' could be defined as any
-derivative work of LGPL'd software that cannot otherwise fit the
-definition of a ``work that uses the library''.  A ``work based on the
-library'' extends the full width and depth of copyright derivative works,
-in the same sense that GPL does.
-
-Most typically, one creates a ``work based on the library'' by directly
-modifying the source of the library.  Such a work could also be created by
-tightly integrating new software with the library.  The lines are no doubt
-fuzzy, just as they are with GPL'd works, since copyright law gives us no
-litmus test for derivative works of a software program.
-
-Thus, the test to use when considering whether something is a ``work
-based on the library'' is as follows:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-
-\item Is the new work, when in source form, a derivative work under
-  copyright law of the LGPL'd work?
-
-\item Is there no way in which the new work fits the definition of a
-  ``work that uses the library''?
-\end{enumerate}
-
-
-If the answer is ``yes'' to both these questions, then you most likely
-have a ``work based on the library''.  If the answer is ``no'' to the
-first but ``yes'' to the second, you are in a gray area between ``work
-based on the library'' and a ``work that uses the library''.
-
-In our years of work with the LGPL, however, we have never seen a work of
-software that was not clearly one or the other; the line is quite bright.
-At times, though, we have seen cases where it almost appeared as such ---
-that a derivative work appeared in some ways to be a work that used the
-library and in other ways a work based on the library.  We overcame this
-problem by dividing the work into smaller subunits.  It was soon
-discovered that what we actually had were three distinct components -- the
-original LGPL'd work, a specific set of works that used that library, and
-a specific set of works that were based on the library.  Once such
-distinctions are established, the licensing for each component can be
-considered independently and the LGPL applied to each work as prescribed.
-
-
-\section{Subtleties in Works that Use the Library}
-
-In our discussion of the definition of ``works that use the library'', we
-left out a few more complex details that relate to lower level programming
-details.  The forth paragraph of LGPL's \S 5 covers these complexities,
-and it has been a source of great confusion.  Part of the confusion comes
-because a deep understanding of how compiler programs work is nearly
-mandatory to understand the subtle nature of what \S 5, \P 4 seeks to
-cover.  It helps some to note that this is a border case that we cover in
-the license only so that when such a border case is hit, the implications
-of using LGPL continue in the expected way.
-
-To understand this subtle point, we must recall the way that a compiler
-operates.  The compiler first generates object code, which are the binary
-representations of various programming modules.  Each of those modules is
-usually not useful by itself; it becomes useful to a user a full program
-when those modules are {\em assembled\/} into a full binary executable.
-
-As we have discussed, the assembly of modules can happen at compile-time
-or at runtime.  Legally, there is no distinction between the two --- both
-create a derivative work by copying and combining portions of one work and
-mixing them with another.  However, under LGPL, there is a case in the
-compilation process where the legal implications are different.
-Specifically, while we know that a ``work that uses the library'' is one
-whose final binary is a derivative work, but whose source is not, there
-are cases where the object code --- that intermediate step between source
-and final binary --- is a derivative work created by copying verbatim code
-from the LGPL'd software.
-
-For efficiency, when a compiler turns source code into object code, it
-sometimes places literal portions of the copyrighted library code into the
-object code for an otherwise separate independent work.  In the normal
-scenario, the derivative would not be created until final assembly and
-linking of the executable occurred.  However, when the compiler does this
-efficiency optimization, at the intermediate object code step, a
-derivative work is created.
-
-LGPL's \S 5, \P 4 is designed to handle this specific case.  The intent of
-the license is clearly that simply compiling software to ``make use'' of
-the library does not in itself cause the compiled work to be a ``work
-based on the library''.  However, since the compiler copies verbatim,
-copyrighted portions of the library into the object code for the otherwise
-separate and independent work, it would actually cause that object file a
-``work based on the library''.  It is not FSF's intent that a mere
-compilation idiosyncrasy would change the requirements on the users of the
-LGPL'd software.  This paragraph removes that restriction, allowing the
-implications of the license to be the same regardless of the specific
-mechanisms the compiler uses underneath to create the ``work that uses the
-library''.
-
-As it turns out, we have only once had anyone worry about this specific
-idiosyncrasy, because that particular vendor wanted to ship object code
-(rather than final binaries) to their customers and were worried about
-this edge condition.  The intent of clarifying this edge condition is
-primarily to quell the worries of software engineers who understand the
-level of verbatim code copying that a compiler often does, and to help
-them understand that the full implications of LGPL are the same regardless
-of the details of the compilation progress.
-
-\section{LGPL \S 6: Distributing Works that Use the Library}
-\label{lgpl-section-6}
-Now that we have a established a good working definition of works that
-``use'' and works that ``are based on'' the library, we will consider the
-rules for distributing these two different works.
-
-The rules for distributing ``works that use the library'' are covered in
-\S 6 of LGPL\@.  \S 6 is much like GPL's \S 3, as it requires the release
-of source when a binary version of the LGPL'd software is released.  Of
-course, it only requires that source code for the library itself be made
-available.  The work that ``uses'' the library need not be provided in
-source form.  However, there are also conditions in LGPL \S 6 to make sure
-that a user who wishes to modify or update the library can do so.
-
-LGPL \S 6 lists five choices with regard to supplying library source and
-granting the freedom to modify that library source to users.  We will
-first consider the option given by \S 6(b), which describes the most
-common way that is currently used for LGPL compliance on a ``work that
-uses the library''.
-
-\S 6(b) allows the distributor of a ``work that uses the library'' to
-simply use a dynamically linked, shared library mechanism to link with the
-library.  This is by far the easiest and most straightforward option for
-distribution.  In this case, the executable of the work that uses the
-library will contain only the ``stub code'' that is put in place by the
-shared library mechanism, and at runtime the executable will combine with
-the shared version of the library already resident on the user's computer.
-If such a mechanism is used, it must allow the user to upgrade and
-replace the library with interface-compatible versions and still be able
-to use the ``work that use the library''.  However, all modern shared
-library mechanisms function as such, and thus \S 6(b) is the simplest
-option, since it does not even require that the distributor of the ``work
-based on the library'' ship copies of the library itself.
-
-\S 6(a) is the option to use when, for some reason, a shared library
-mechanism cannot be used.  It requires that the source for the library be
-included, in the typical GPL fashion, but it also has a requirement beyond
-that.  The user must be able to exercise her freedom to modify the library
-to its fullest extent, and that means recombining it with the ``work based
-on the library''.  If the full binary is linked without a shared library
-mechanism, the user must have available the object code for the ``worked
-based on the library'', so that the user can relink the application and
-build a new binary.
-
-The remaining options in \S 6 are very similar to the other choices
-provided by GPL \S 3.  There are some additional options, and time does
-not permit us in this course to go into those additional options.  In
-almost all cases of distribution under LGPL, either \S 6(a) or \S 6(b) are
-exercised.
-
-\section{Distribution of Works Based on the Library}
-
-Essentially, ``works based on the library'' must be distributed under the
-same conditions as works under full GPL\@.  In fact, we note that LGPL's
-\S 2 is nearly identical in its terms and requirements to GPL's \S 2.
-There are again subtle differences and additions, which time does not
-permit us to cover in this course.
-
-\section{And the Rest}
-
-The remaining variations between LGPL and GPL cover the following
-conditions:
-
-\begin{itemize}
-
-\item allowing a licensing ``upgrade'' from LGPL to GPL\@ (in LGPL \S 3),
-
-\item binary distribution of the library only, covered in LGPL \S 4,
-  which is effectively equivalent to LGPL \S 3, and
-
-\item creating aggregates of libraries that are not derivative works of
-  each other, and distributing them as a unit (in LGPL \S 7).
-\end{itemize}
-
-
-Due to time constraints, we cannot cover these additional terms in detail,
-but they are mostly straightforward.  The key to understanding LGPL is
-understanding the difference between a ``work based on the library'' and a
-``work that uses the library''.  Once that distinction is clear, the
-remainder of LGPL is close enough to GPL that the concepts discussed in
-our more extensive GPL unit can be directly applied.
-
-%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
-\chapter{Integrating the GPL into Business Practices}
-
-Since GPL'd software is now extremely prevalent through the industry, it
-is useful to has some basic knowledge about using GPL'd software in
-business and how to build business models around GPL'd software.
-
-\section{Using GPL'd Software In-House}
-
-A discussed in Sections~\ref{GPLs0} and~\ref{GPLs5} of this tutorial, the
-GPL only governs the activities of copying, modifying and distributing the
-software are not governed by the license.  Thus, in FSF's view, simply
-installing the software on a machine and using it is not controlled or
-limited in any way by GPL\@.  Using Free Software in general requires
-substantially fewer agreements and less license compliance activity than
-any known proprietary software.
-
-Even if a company engages heavily in copying the software throughout the
-enterprise, such copying is not only permitted by \S\S 1 and 3, but it is
-encouraged!  If the company simply deploy unmodified (or even modified)
-Free Software throughout the organization for its employees to use, the
-obligations under the license are very minimal.  Using Free Software has a
-substantially lower cost of ownership --- both in licensing fees and in
-licensing checking and handling -- than the proprietary software
-equivalents.
-
-\section{Business Models}
-\label{Business Models}
-
-Using Free Software in house is certainly helpful, but there is also a
-thriving market for Free Software-oriented business models.  There is the
-traditional model of selling copies of Free Software distributions.  Many
-companies, including IBM and Red Hat, make substantial revenue from this
-model.  IBM primarily chooses this model because they have found that for
-higher-end hardware, the cost of the profit made from proprietary software
-licensing fees is negligible.  The real profit is in the hardware, but it is
-essential that software be stable, reliable and dependable, and the users
-be allowed to have unfettered access to it.  Free Software, and GPL'd
-software in particular (because IBM can be assured that proprietary
-versions of the same software will not exists to compete on their
-hardware) is the right choice.
-
-Red Hat has actually found that a ``convenience fee'' for Free Software,
-when set at a reasonable price (around \$60 or so), can produce some
-profit.  Even though Red Hat's system is fully downloadable on their
-website, people still go to local computer stores and buy copies of their
-box set, which is simply a printed version of the manual (available under
-a free license as well) and the Free Software system it documents.
-
-\medskip
-
-However, custom support, service, and software improvement contracts are
-the most widely used models for GPL'd software.  The GPL is central to
-their success, because it ensure that the code base remains common, and
-that large and small companies are on equal footing for access to the
-technology.  Consider, for example, the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC).
-Cygnus Solutions, a company started in the early 1990s, was able to grow
-steadily simply by providing services for GCC --- mostly consisting of
-porting GCC to new embedded chipset target platforms.  Eventually, Cygnus
-was so successful that it was purchased by Red Hat where it remains a
-profitable division.
-
-However, there are very small companies like CodeSourcery, as well as
-other medium sized companies like MontaVista and OpenTV that compete in
-this space.  Because the code-base is protect by GPL, it creates and
-demands industry trust.  Companies can cooperate on the software and
-improve it for everyone.  Meanwhile, companies who rely on GCC for their
-work are happy to pay for improvements, and for ports to new target
-platforms, and nearly all the changes fold back into the standard
-versions, and those forks that exist remain freely available.
-
-\medskip
-
-\label{Proprietary Relicensing}
-
-A final common business model that is perhaps the most controversial is
-proprietary relicensing of a GPL'd code base.  This is only an option for
-software in which a particular entity is the sole copyright holder.  As
-discussed earlier in this tutorial, a copyright holder is permitted under
-copyright law to license a software system under her copyright as many
-different ways as she likes to as many different parties as she wishes.
-
-Some companies, such as MySQL AB and TrollTech, use this to their
-financial advantage with regard to a GPL'd code base.  The standard
-version is available from the company under the terms of the GPL\@.
-However, parties can purchase separate proprietary software licensing for
-a fee.
-
-This business model is problematic because it means that the GPL'd code
-base must be developed in a somewhat monolithic way, because volunteer
-Free Software developers may be reluctant to assign their copyrights to
-the company because it will not promise to always and forever license the
-software as Free Software.  Indeed, the company will surely use such code
-contributions in proprietary versions licensed for fees.
-
-\section{Ongoing Compliance}
-
-GPL compliance is in fact a very simple matter -- much simpler than
-typical proprietary software agreements and EULAs.  Usually, the most
-difficult hurdle is changing from a proprietary software mindset to one
-that seeks to foster a community of sharing and mutual support.  Certainly
-complying with the GPL from a users' perspective gives substantially fewer
-headaches than proprietary license compliance.
-
-For those who go into the business of distributing or distributing
-modified versions of GPL'd software, the burden is a bit higher, but not
-by much.  The glib answer that is that it is always easy to comply with
-the GPL by releasing the whole product as Free Software.  However,
-admittedly to the dismay of FSF, many modern and complex software systems
-are built using both proprietary and GPL'd components that are not
-legally derivative works of each other.  Usually, in product development
-with Free Software tools, sometimes it is easier simply to improve
-existing GPL'd application than to start from scratch.  In exchange for
-that benefit, the license requires that the modifier give back to the
-commons that made the work easier.  It is a reasonable trade-off, and it
-is a way to help build a better world while also making a profit.
-
-Note that FSF does provide services to assist companies who need
-assistance in complying with the GPL.  You can contact FSF's GPL
-Compliance Labs at $<$compliance@fsf.org$>$.
-
-If you are particularly interested in matters of GPL compliance, we
-recommend the second course in this series, {\em GPL Compliance Case
-  Studies and Legal Ethics in Free Software Licensing\/}, in which we
-discuss some real GPL violation cases that FSF has worked to resolve.
-Consideration of such cases can help give insight on how to handle GPL
-compliance in new situations.
-
-\appendix
-
-\chapter{The GNU General Public License}
-
-\begin{center}
-{\parindent 0in
-
-Version 2, June 1991
-
-Copyright \copyright\ 1989, 1991 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
-\bigskip
-
-59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307, USA
-
-\bigskip
-
-Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
-of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
-}
-\end{center}
-
-\begin{center}
-{\bf\large Preamble}
-\end{center}
-
-
-The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to
-share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public License is
-intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software---to
-make sure the software is free for all its users.  This General Public
-License applies to most of the Free Software Foundation's software and to
-any other program whose authors commit to using it.  (Some other Free
-Software Foundation software is covered by the GNU Library General Public
-License instead.)  You can apply it to your programs, too.
-
-When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom, not price.
-Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you have the
-freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for this service
-if you wish), that you receive source code or can get it if you want it,
-that you can change the software or use pieces of it in new free programs;
-and that you know you can do these things.
-
-To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid anyone to
-deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender the rights.  These
-restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you if you
-distribute copies of the software, or if you modify it.
-
-For example, if you distribute copies of such a program, whether gratis or
-for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that you have.  You
-must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code.  And
-you must show them these terms so they know their rights.
-
-We protect your rights with two steps: (1) copyright the software, and (2)
-offer you this license which gives you legal permission to copy,
-distribute and/or modify the software.
-
-Also, for each author's protection and ours, we want to make certain that
-everyone understands that there is no warranty for this free software.  If
-the software is modified by someone else and passed on, we want its
-recipients to know that what they have is not the original, so that any
-problems introduced by others will not reflect on the original authors'
-reputations.
-
-Finally, any free program is threatened constantly by software patents.
-We wish to avoid the danger that redistributors of a free program will
-individually obtain patent licenses, in effect making the program
-proprietary.  To prevent this, we have made it clear that any patent must
-be licensed for everyone's free use or not licensed at all.
-
-The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
-modification follow.
-
-\begin{center}
-{\Large \sc Terms and Conditions For Copying, Distribution and
-  Modification}
-\end{center}
-
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-
-\addtocounter{enumi}{-1}
-\item
-
-This License applies to any program or other work which contains a notice
-placed by the copyright holder saying it may be distributed under the
-terms of this General Public License.  The ``Program'', below, refers to
-any such program or work, and a ``work based on the Program'' means either
-the Program or any derivative work under copyright law: that is to say, a
-work containing the Program or a portion of it, either verbatim or with
-modifications and/or translated into another language.  (Hereinafter,
-translation is included without limitation in the term ``modification''.)
-Each licensee is addressed as ``you''.
-
-Activities other than copying, distribution and modification are not
-covered by this License; they are outside its scope.  The act of
-running the Program is not restricted, and the output from the Program
-is covered only if its contents constitute a work based on the
-Program (independent of having been made by running the Program).
-Whether that is true depends on what the Program does.
-
-\item You may copy and distribute verbatim copies of the Program's source
-  code as you receive it, in any medium, provided that you conspicuously
-  and appropriately publish on each copy an appropriate copyright notice
-  and disclaimer of warranty; keep intact all the notices that refer to
-  this License and to the absence of any warranty; and give any other
-  recipients of the Program a copy of this License along with the Program.
-
-You may charge a fee for the physical act of transferring a copy, and you
-may at your option offer warranty protection in exchange for a fee.
-
-\item
-
-You may modify your copy or copies of the Program or any portion
-of it, thus forming a work based on the Program, and copy and
-distribute such modifications or work under the terms of Section 1
-above, provided that you also meet all of these conditions:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-
-\item
-
-You must cause the modified files to carry prominent notices stating that
-you changed the files and the date of any change.
-
-\item
-
-You must cause any work that you distribute or publish, that in
-whole or in part contains or is derived from the Program or any
-part thereof, to be licensed as a whole at no charge to all third
-parties under the terms of this License.
-
-\item
-If the modified program normally reads commands interactively
-when run, you must cause it, when started running for such
-interactive use in the most ordinary way, to print or display an
-announcement including an appropriate copyright notice and a
-notice that there is no warranty (or else, saying that you provide
-a warranty) and that users may redistribute the program under
-these conditions, and telling the user how to view a copy of this
-License.  (Exception: if the Program itself is interactive but
-does not normally print such an announcement, your work based on
-the Program is not required to print an announcement.)
-
-\end{enumerate}
-
-
-These requirements apply to the modified work as a whole.  If
-identifiable sections of that work are not derived from the Program,
-and can be reasonably considered independent and separate works in
-themselves, then this License, and its terms, do not apply to those
-sections when you distribute them as separate works.  But when you
-distribute the same sections as part of a whole which is a work based
-on the Program, the distribution of the whole must be on the terms of
-this License, whose permissions for other licensees extend to the
-entire whole, and thus to each and every part regardless of who wrote it.
-
-Thus, it is not the intent of this section to claim rights or contest
-your rights to work written entirely by you; rather, the intent is to
-exercise the right to control the distribution of derivative or
-collective works based on the Program.
-
-In addition, mere aggregation of another work not based on the Program
-with the Program (or with a work based on the Program) on a volume of
-a storage or distribution medium does not bring the other work under
-the scope of this License.
-
-\item
-You may copy and distribute the Program (or a work based on it,
-under Section 2) in object code or executable form under the terms of
-Sections 1 and 2 above provided that you also do one of the following:
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-
-\item
-
-Accompany it with the complete corresponding machine-readable
-source code, which must be distributed under the terms of Sections
-1 and 2 above on a medium customarily used for software interchange; or,
-
-\item
-
-Accompany it with a written offer, valid for at least three
-years, to give any third party, for a charge no more than your
-cost of physically performing source distribution, a complete
-machine-readable copy of the corresponding source code, to be
-distributed under the terms of Sections 1 and 2 above on a medium
-customarily used for software interchange; or,
-
-\item
-
-Accompany it with the information you received as to the offer
-to distribute corresponding source code.  (This alternative is
-allowed only for noncommercial distribution and only if you
-received the program in object code or executable form with such
-an offer, in accord with Subsection b above.)
-
-\end{enumerate}
-
-
-The source code for a work means the preferred form of the work for
-making modifications to it.  For an executable work, complete source
-code means all the source code for all modules it contains, plus any
-associated interface definition files, plus the scripts used to
-control compilation and installation of the executable.  However, as a
-special exception, the source code distributed need not include
-anything that is normally distributed (in either source or binary
-form) with the major components (compiler, kernel, and so on) of the
-operating system on which the executable runs, unless that component
-itself accompanies the executable.
-
-If distribution of executable or object code is made by offering
-access to copy from a designated place, then offering equivalent
-access to copy the source code from the same place counts as
-distribution of the source code, even though third parties are not
-compelled to copy the source along with the object code.
-
-\item
-You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Program
-except as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt
-otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense or distribute the Program is
-void, and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.
-However, parties who have received copies, or rights, from you under
-this License will not have their licenses terminated so long as such
-parties remain in full compliance.
-
-\item
-You are not required to accept this License, since you have not
-signed it.  However, nothing else grants you permission to modify or
-distribute the Program or its derivative works.  These actions are
-prohibited by law if you do not accept this License.  Therefore, by
-modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the
-Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and
-all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying
-the Program or works based on it.
-
-\item
-Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
-Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
-original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to
-these terms and conditions.  You may not impose any further
-restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein.
-You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to
-this License.
-
-\item
-If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
-infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues),
-conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
-otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
-excuse you from the conditions of this License.  If you cannot
-distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this
-License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you
-may not distribute the Program at all.  For example, if a patent
-license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by
-all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then
-the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to
-refrain entirely from distribution of the Program.
-
-If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under
-any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to
-apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other
-circumstances.
-
-It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
-patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any
-such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the
-integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
-implemented by public license practices.  Many people have made
-generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
-through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
-system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing
-to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot
-impose that choice.
-
-This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to
-be a consequence of the rest of this License.
-
-\item
-If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in
-certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the
-original copyright holder who places the Program under this License
-may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding
-those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among
-countries not thus excluded.  In such case, this License incorporates
-the limitation as if written in the body of this License.
-
-\item
-The Free Software Foundation may publish revised and/or new versions
-of the General Public License from time to time.  Such new versions will
-be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
-address new problems or concerns.
-
-Each version is given a distinguishing version number.  If the Program
-specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and ``any
-later version'', you have the option of following the terms and conditions
-either of that version or of any later version published by the Free
-Software Foundation.  If the Program does not specify a version number of
-this License, you may choose any version ever published by the Free Software
-Foundation.
-
-\item
-If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
-programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the author
-to ask for permission.  For software which is copyrighted by the Free
-Software Foundation, write to the Free Software Foundation; we sometimes
-make exceptions for this.  Our decision will be guided by the two goals
-of preserving the free status of all derivatives of our free software and
-of promoting the sharing and reuse of software generally.
-
-\begin{center}
-{\Large\sc
-No Warranty
-}
-\end{center}
-
-\item
-{\sc Because the program is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty
-for the program, to the extent permitted by applicable law.  Except when
-otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties
-provide the program ``as is'' without warranty of any kind, either expressed
-or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of
-merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.  The entire risk as
-to the quality and performance of the program is with you.  Should the
-program prove defective, you assume the cost of all necessary servicing,
-repair or correction.}
-
-\item
-{\sc In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing
-will any copyright holder, or any other party who may modify and/or
-redistribute the program as permitted above, be liable to you for damages,
-including any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising
-out of the use or inability to use the program (including but not limited
-to loss of data or data being rendered inaccurate or losses sustained by
-you or third parties or a failure of the program to operate with any other
-programs), even if such holder or other party has been advised of the
-possibility of such damages.}
-
-\end{enumerate}
-
-
-\begin{center}
-{\Large\sc End of Terms and Conditions}
-\end{center}
-
-
-\pagebreak[2]
-
-\section*{Appendix: How to Apply These Terms to Your New Programs}
-
-If you develop a new program, and you want it to be of the greatest
-possible use to the public, the best way to achieve this is to make it
-free software which everyone can redistribute and change under these
-terms.
-
-  To do so, attach the following notices to the program.  It is safest to
-  attach them to the start of each source file to most effectively convey
-  the exclusion of warranty; and each file should have at least the
-  ``copyright'' line and a pointer to where the full notice is found.
-
-\begin{quote}
-one line to give the program's name and a brief idea of what it does. \\
-Copyright (C) yyyy  name of author \\
-
-This program is free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify
-it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by
-the Free Software Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or
-(at your option) any later version.
-
-This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
-but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
-MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the
-GNU General Public License for more details.
-
-You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License
-along with this program; if not, write to the Free Software
-Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307, USA.
-\end{quote}
-
-Also add information on how to contact you by electronic and paper mail.
-
-If the program is interactive, make it output a short notice like this
-when it starts in an interactive mode:
-
-\begin{quote}
-Gnomovision version 69, Copyright (C) yyyy  name of author \\
-Gnomovision comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY; for details type `show w'. \\
-This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
-under certain conditions; type `show c' for details.
-\end{quote}
-
-
-The hypothetical commands {\tt show w} and {\tt show c} should show the
-appropriate parts of the General Public License.  Of course, the commands
-you use may be called something other than {\tt show w} and {\tt show c};
-they could even be mouse-clicks or menu items---whatever suits your
-program.
-
-You should also get your employer (if you work as a programmer) or your
-school, if any, to sign a ``copyright disclaimer'' for the program, if
-necessary.  Here is a sample; alter the names:
-
-\begin{quote}
-Yoyodyne, Inc., hereby disclaims all copyright interest in the program \\
-`Gnomovision' (which makes passes at compilers) written by James Hacker. \\
-
-signature of Ty Coon, 1 April 1989 \\
-Ty Coon, President of Vice
-\end{quote}
-
-
-This General Public License does not permit incorporating your program
-into proprietary programs.  If your program is a subroutine library, you
-may consider it more useful to permit linking proprietary applications
-with the library.  If this is what you want to do, use the GNU Library
-General Public License instead of this License.
-
-
-\chapter{The GNU Lesser General Public License}
-
-\begin{center}
-{\parindent 0in
-
-Version 2.1, February 1999
-
-Copyright \copyright\ 1991, 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-
-\bigskip
-
-59 Temple Place - Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307, USA
-
-\bigskip
-
-Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
-of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.
-
-\bigskip
-
-[This is the first released version of the Lesser GPL.  It also counts
- as the successor of the GNU Library Public License, version 2, hence
- the version number 2.1.]
-}
-
-\end{center}
-
-\begin{center}
-{\bf\large Preamble}
-\end{center}
-
-The licenses for most software are designed to take away your freedom to
-share and change it.  By contrast, the GNU General Public Licenses are
-intended to guarantee your freedom to share and change free software---to
-make sure the software is free for all its users.
-
-This license, the Lesser General Public License, applies to some specially
-designated software packages---typically libraries---of the Free Software
-Foundation and other authors who decide to use it.  You can use it too,
-but we suggest you first think carefully about whether this license or the
-ordinary General Public License is the better strategy to use in any
-particular case, based on the explanations below.
-
-When we speak of free software, we are referring to freedom of use, not
-price.  Our General Public Licenses are designed to make sure that you
-have the freedom to distribute copies of free software (and charge for
-this service if you wish); that you receive source code or can get it if
-you want it; that you can change the software and use pieces of it in new
-free programs; and that you are informed that you can do these things.
-
-To protect your rights, we need to make restrictions that forbid
-distributors to deny you these rights or to ask you to surrender these
-rights.  These restrictions translate to certain responsibilities for you
-if you distribute copies of the library or if you modify it.
-
-For example, if you distribute copies of the library, whether gratis or
-for a fee, you must give the recipients all the rights that we gave you.
-You must make sure that they, too, receive or can get the source code.  If
-you link other code with the library, you must provide complete object
-files to the recipients, so that they can relink them with the library
-after making changes to the library and recompiling it.  And you must show
-them these terms so they know their rights.
-
-We protect your rights with a two-step method: (1) we copyright the
-library, and (2) we offer you this license, which gives you legal
-permission to copy, distribute and/or modify the library.
-
-To protect each distributor, we want to make it very clear that there is
-no warranty for the free library.  Also, if the library is modified by
-someone else and passed on, the recipients should know that what they have
-is not the original version, so that the original author's reputation will
-not be affected by problems that might be introduced by others.
-
-Finally, software patents pose a constant threat to the existence of any
-free program.  We wish to make sure that a company cannot effectively
-restrict the users of a free program by obtaining a restrictive license
-from a patent holder.  Therefore, we insist that any patent license
-obtained for a version of the library must be consistent with the full
-freedom of use specified in this license.
-
-Most GNU software, including some libraries, is covered by the ordinary
-GNU General Public License.  This license, the GNU Lesser General Public
-License, applies to certain designated libraries, and is quite different
-from the ordinary General Public License.  We use this license for certain
-libraries in order to permit linking those libraries into non-free
-programs.
-
-When a program is linked with a library, whether statically or using a
-shared library, the combination of the two is legally speaking a combined
-work, a derivative of the original library.  The ordinary General Public
-License therefore permits such linking only if the entire combination fits
-its criteria of freedom.  The Lesser General Public License permits more
-lax criteria for linking other code with the library.
-
-We call this license the ``Lesser'' General Public License because it does
-Less to protect the user's freedom than the ordinary General Public
-License.  It also provides other free software developers Less of an
-advantage over competing non-free programs.  These disadvantages are the
-reason we use the ordinary General Public License for many libraries.
-However, the Lesser license provides advantages in certain special
-circumstances.
-
-For example, on rare occasions, there may be a special need to encourage
-the widest possible use of a certain library, so that it becomes a
-de-facto standard.  To achieve this, non-free programs must be allowed to
-use the library.  A more frequent case is that a free library does the
-same job as widely used non-free libraries.  In this case, there is little
-to gain by limiting the free library to free software only, so we use the
-Lesser General Public License.
-
-In other cases, permission to use a particular library in non-free
-programs enables a greater number of people to use a large body of free
-software.  For example, permission to use the GNU C Library in non-free
-programs enables many more people to use the whole GNU operating system,
-as well as its variant, the GNU/Linux operating system.
-
-Although the Lesser General Public License is Less protective of the
-users' freedom, it does ensure that the user of a program that is linked
-with the Library has the freedom and the wherewithal to run that program
-using a modified version of the Library.
-
-The precise terms and conditions for copying, distribution and
-modification follow.  Pay close attention to the difference between a
-``work based on the library'' and a ``work that uses the library''.  The
-former contains code derived from the library, whereas the latter must be
-combined with the library in order to run.
-
-\begin{center}
-{\Large \sc GNU Lesser General Public License} \\
-{\Large \sc Terms and Conditions For Copying, Distribution and
-  Modification}
-\end{center}
-
-\begin{enumerate}
-
-\addtocounter{enumi}{-1}
-
-\item
-
-This License Agreement applies to any software library or other program
-which contains a notice placed by the copyright holder or other authorized
-party saying it may be distributed under the terms of this Lesser General
-Public License (also called ``this License'').  Each licensee is addressed
-as ``you''.
-
-A ``library'' means a collection of software functions and/or data
-prepared so as to be conveniently linked with application programs (which
-use some of those functions and data) to form executables.
-
-The ``Library'', below, refers to any such software library or work which
-has been distributed under these terms.  A ``work based on the Library''
-means either the Library or any derivative work under copyright law: that
-is to say, a work containing the Library or a portion of it, either
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-prohibited by law if you do not accept this License.  Therefore, by
-modifying or distributing the Program (or any work based on the
-Program), you indicate your acceptance of this License to do so, and
-all its terms and conditions for copying, distributing or modifying
-the Program or works based on it.
-
-\item
-Each time you redistribute the Program (or any work based on the
-Program), the recipient automatically receives a license from the
-original licensor to copy, distribute or modify the Program subject to
-these terms and conditions.  You may not impose any further
-restrictions on the recipients' exercise of the rights granted herein.
-You are not responsible for enforcing compliance by third parties to
-this License.
-
-\item
-If, as a consequence of a court judgment or allegation of patent
-infringement or for any other reason (not limited to patent issues),
-conditions are imposed on you (whether by court order, agreement or
-otherwise) that contradict the conditions of this License, they do not
-excuse you from the conditions of this License.  If you cannot
-distribute so as to satisfy simultaneously your obligations under this
-License and any other pertinent obligations, then as a consequence you
-may not distribute the Program at all.  For example, if a patent
-license would not permit royalty-free redistribution of the Program by
-all those who receive copies directly or indirectly through you, then
-the only way you could satisfy both it and this License would be to
-refrain entirely from distribution of the Program.
-
-If any portion of this section is held invalid or unenforceable under
-any particular circumstance, the balance of the section is intended to
-apply and the section as a whole is intended to apply in other
-circumstances.
-
-It is not the purpose of this section to induce you to infringe any
-patents or other property right claims or to contest validity of any
-such claims; this section has the sole purpose of protecting the
-integrity of the free software distribution system, which is
-implemented by public license practices.  Many people have made
-generous contributions to the wide range of software distributed
-through that system in reliance on consistent application of that
-system; it is up to the author/donor to decide if he or she is willing
-to distribute software through any other system and a licensee cannot
-impose that choice.
-
-This section is intended to make thoroughly clear what is believed to
-be a consequence of the rest of this License.
-
-\item
-If the distribution and/or use of the Program is restricted in
-certain countries either by patents or by copyrighted interfaces, the
-original copyright holder who places the Program under this License
-may add an explicit geographical distribution limitation excluding
-those countries, so that distribution is permitted only in or among
-countries not thus excluded.  In such case, this License incorporates
-the limitation as if written in the body of this License.
-
-\item
-\textbf{Affero Inc. may publish revised and/or new versions of the Affero
-General Public License from time to time. Such new versions will be
-similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to
-address new problems or concerns.
-
-Each version is given a distinguishing version number. If the Program
-specifies a version number of this License which applies to it and
-``any later version'', you have the option of following the terms and
-conditions either of that version or of any later version published by
-Affero, Inc. If the Program does not specify a version number of this
-License, you may choose any version ever published by Affero, Inc.
-
-You may also choose to redistribute modified versions of this program
-under any version of the Free Software Foundation's GNU General Public
-License version 3 or higher, so long as that version of the GNU GPL
-includes terms and conditions substantially equivalent to those of
-this license.}
-
-\item
-If you wish to incorporate parts of the Program into other free
-programs whose distribution conditions are different, write to the
-author to ask for permission. For software which is copyrighted by
-Affero, Inc., write to us; we sometimes make exceptions for this. Our
-decision will be guided by the two goals of preserving the free status
-of all derivatives of our free software and of promoting the sharing
-and reuse of software generally.
-
-\begin{center}
-{\Large\sc
-No Warranty
-}
-\end{center}
-
-\item
-{\sc Because the program is licensed free of charge, there is no warranty
-for the program, to the extent permitted by applicable law.  Except when
-otherwise stated in writing the copyright holders and/or other parties
-provide the program ``as is'' without warranty of any kind, either expressed
-or implied, including, but not limited to, the implied warranties of
-merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.  The entire risk as
-to the quality and performance of the program is with you.  Should the
-program prove defective, you assume the cost of all necessary servicing,
-repair or correction.}
-
-\item
-{\sc In no event unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing
-will any copyright holder, or any other party who may modify and/or
-redistribute the program as permitted above, be liable to you for damages,
-including any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising
-out of the use or inability to use the program (including but not limited
-to loss of data or data being rendered inaccurate or losses sustained by
-you or third parties or a failure of the program to operate with any other
-programs), even if such holder or other party has been advised of the
-possibility of such damages.}
-
-\end{enumerate}
-
-
-
-
-
-
-That's all there is to it!
-
-\end{document}
-
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